The position and status of women in today’s challenging and enterprising world has been a subject of debates and discussions. Using slogans of democracy and equal opportunities, women have for long demanded equality and rights equal to men, positions that have in many respects accommodated them in one way and in another expose them to new kinds of exploitation, at home and work. But, Islam, as a way of life, has long solved their problem by clearly spelling out the rules and guidance on how and when women should go out and participate in gatherings with men. This paper highlights and appreciates these positions as exposed by the revered Sheikh Othman Bn Fodiyo, the leader of the Sokoto Jihad in his book ‘Guiding the Brothers on the Rules of Women Going Out’.
Keywords: Relevance, Guiding, Brothers, Women, Going out. Sheik Othman Bn Fodiyo
Contemporary Relevance of the book Guiding the Brothers on the Rules of Women
Going Out Written by Sheikh Othman Bn Fodiyo
By
Usman Abubakar Daniya, PhD
Department of History
UsmanuDanfodiyo
University, Sokoto
&
Maryam Hamza
Khalad, (Mrs.)
Department of
Sociology
Sokoto State
University, Sokoto
Introduction
There is no doubt
about the fact that in present competing and ‘modern’ world, the position of
women, more especially on labour and equality has since become a matter of
great concern especially in the ‘advanced world’. The issues being raised
include, among other things, leadership roles in organizations, equality of
pay, and equal employment opportunity with men in all occupations. Women also
demand absolute freedom to be independent. It is no surprise, therefore, that
in the United States from the 1960s and ‘70s, Women’s right movement, also
called women’s liberation movement has been in the vogue. It is a diverse
social movement that sought equal rights and opportunities and greater personal
freedom for women. This unlike the first –wave of feminism of the 19th
and early 20th centuries that focused only on women’s legal rights,
the new movement touched on every area of women’s experience – including
politics, work, the family, and sexuality. Organized activism by and on behalf
of women continued through the third and fourth waves of feminism from the
mid-1990sand the early 2000s respectively.[1]It is, thus, no surprise,
again, that many international bodies such as the United Nations have responded
by giving preference to women in many of their activities. At home, our
governments have also created special ministries and organizations to take
charge of women affairs and, in some places, even apply quota systems for women
in political appointments. The ways of Islam as regards the position of women,
however, are different. Islam, as a total way of life, has since accorded a
special position to women. In Islam, the moral and spiritual state of a given
society or civilization, which in turn determines its over-all internal
strength and longevity, is dependent upon the status that society or
civilization gives to its women. This is so because of the women’s considerable
influence over the basic and fundamental pillars of the society as well as
their natural influence over men.[2]This work attempts an
analysis of Sheikh Othman bn Fodio’s explanations regarding women’s going out
to undertake some activities in Islam. It aims to clearly show his positions
within the larger context of our cultural settings and not necessary on the
western capitalist patterns that we are constantly asked to ape.To do this, the
paper will first give a brief overview of the Sokoto Jihad and its leader and
proceed to the main issue at hand – the Jihad leader’s views on women; on
education, going out to market and business, going out for religious functions
i.e. mosques and burial grounds and participation in ceremonies, etc. Lastly,
an assessment will give a general examination of these views taking into
cognizance the essence of the present social changes and organization. The end
is conclusionEstablishment of the Sokoto
Caliphate
Sheikh Othman bn
Fodio, ‘the outstanding man of the century for
Sudan’,[3]
was born in Gobir at a place called Marattaon Sunday 15 December 1754[4] (29th Safar
1168 A.H.).[5]
He came from the renowned and educated Toronkawa
(Torobe) Fulani clan. He started his education under his learned father and
later moved to other scholars to advance his education. Early in life, he
studied Tafsir, Hadith, Law, and sometimes rhetoric. Among the famous of his
teachers were his uncles: Usman Binduri, under whom he studied for about two
years and Muhammadu Sambo, Muhammadu Ruji, Muhammadu Bindowo, Abdurrahman dan
Hamada[6] and Sheikh Jibril ibn
Umar. The latter was a very learned man and was refuted to be the most learned
man of his day in west Africa. He was, perhaps, the tutor who influenced the
Sheikh most.[7]
Also, he did much to put him on the path of reviving Islam.[8]
Bn Fodiyo grew up
in Hausa land. Although by the 14th century Islam was already in
Hausaland yet it was no near to be fully accepted by the majority of the
populace. What seems to have happened, according to Hiskett, was that
individual Muslims from peripheral areas of north Africa and Egyptian traders
after the initiative patronage of the governments of the Habe States came into
the Habe Kingdoms and settled thereby forming small communities that gradually
began to affect the pagan peoples.[9] Islam was generally mixed
with various pagan practices. Also, various forms of injustices were being obtained
in the time and people were openly committing grave sins without a feeling of
guilt and with apparent support of government.[10]
Bn Fodio started
his teaching and preaching at the age of 20 in the year 1188 A.H[11] (1774/75).[12] His duties were the
following: to strengthen Islam, cleanse it from the pagan practices it was
embellished, and convert the pagans. From his base in Degel, thus, he began to
travel round the country to spread the true faith. He made converts wherever he
went in the course of his preaching: teaching the rituals and the basic tenets
of Islam. He also tried to correct the views and beliefs who were already
enlightened. Abdullahi, his younger brother, records that people from the
countryside came to him and remained with him as followers.[13] But bn Fodio didn’t stop
just around his immediate environment neither did he preach alone. He traveled
with his younger brother to Kebbi and Zamfara, Zaberma and Niger, as well as
Daura.[14] He was said to have great
successes. But in Zamfara he had to spend five years because he found the
people almost completely ignorant of Islam.[15] As Shehu became so
successful that his fame spread far and wide in Hausaland and students flock to
him from various parts. Being gifted with eloquence, intelligence, and high
moral character he soon gathered a large following.[16]These people came to
regard him as their liberator from Hausa misrule in the matter of Islamic law
and as their spiritual guide to the only God.[17]Naturally, these
developments alarmed the Hausa rulers who tried to curb his influence through
various ways including persecution which culminated in a Jihad or holy war.[18]
When the Jihad was
successfully extended, what eventually emerged as the Sokoto Caliphate
encompassed 30 emirates that stretched from Konni district in the Niger
Republic in the North to the Yoruba emirate of Ilorin in the south[19] and thus culminated in
the establishment of the ‘largest, most heavily populated, most complexly
organized, and the wealthiest state system in the nineteenth century West
Africa, if not sub-Saharan Africa as a whole.’[20] The Caliphate reigned
until 1903 when it was subjugated by the marauding European imperialist.
During his life,
bn Fodio was a prolific writer who wrote over 100 works on various issues that
guided and continue to guide the people of the region on various life issues.
His views on women going out as expressed in his work, ‘Guiding the Brothers on
the Rules of Women Going Out’, is the subject matter of this paper and these
are highlighted in the next section.
About the Book
The title of the
book is Guiding the Brothers on the Rules
of Women Going Out.The date and the place of publication are not provided,
from the beginning, Bn Fodio categorically stated his intentions – to correct
the different opinions regarding women going out in the land of Sudan (Black
nation). There are two groups, he contends: One extreme group, which was the
majority, whoconsiders it permissible for women to go out for their needs
generally like men, with or without valid excuses. The other group went to the
opposite extreme, saying that it is not permissible to go out for any of their
needs generally, with or without any legal excuse. This is also wrong and the
advocates of this view are the minority. “They introduced these ideas into our
present nations and in recent times’.[21]The Sheikh says that his intention
was to advise all and establish a balance between the two extremes and give
details on the rule of women going out based on the statements of the scholars
of Sunnah. This is for the truth to
manifest itself and being practical in calling all those who sent to the
extremes to return to the middle way. This would allow women to go out and take
care of their needs with a legal necessity or excuse which can be justified.[22] The Sheikh then went step
by step to classify women going out into twelve types and arranged them in
chapters for easy reference. He explains his positions as follows:
Seeking for Obligatory Knowledge
Islam,
in theory as well as practice, has always promoted knowledge. Therefore, in
Islam, the search for education is compulsory for both men and women. In fact,
it is even more so with women since, as it is widely recognized, societies
whose women are sufficiently intellectually developed, and morally and
spiritually sound, is bound to move fast in the development and quest for
happiness. Correspondingly, a society consisting of ignorant and enslaved women
will continue to move backward until it is left behind by other societies.[23]The Shari’ah explicitly
prescribes that the search for knowledge is compulsory for women, in the same
way, it is for men, and indeed the obligation to seek education is pre-eminent
over marriage.[24]
The first verses of the Quran began with the word:
Read. Read in the
name of thy Lord who created; [He] created the human being from blood clot.
Read in the name of thy Lord who taught by the pen: [He] taught the human being
what he did not know.[25]
In
the same vein, the Prophet of Islam (saw) has also emphasized the importance of
seeking knowledge. Anas ibn Malik reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and
blessings be upon him, said, “Seeking
knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim.”[26]
It
is apparent from the Holy Qur’an and Hadiths
that the acquisition of knowledge is of women is obligatory for women in the
same way as in the case of men.
Following the
injunctions of the Qur’an and the sayings of Prophet Muhammad, Sheikh Othman bn
Fodio asserted that it is obligatory for all who have attained the age of
religious responsibilities, male or female to learn necessary things about the
affairs of faith.[27]He also emphasized women
getting an education at all possible costs as her ‘staying at home in ignorance
does not benefit her except may be to go to Hellfire.’[28]He concluded that one must
allow his wife to go out and seek for knowledge if he cannot teach her.
While going out to
seek education, however, the class must be either all-female or they are behind
a veil in a male class. It is forbidden if they can get the teaching from their
husband or if in a male class without a veil.[29] The Sheikh cited Buhari
who reported that Sayyid Ahmad bn SulaimanAzzahid[30] used to admonish women
setting aside for them a day to teach them the rules of religion as well as
their religion from scholars when none among their husbands taught them.[31] During the life of the
Prophet, Abu Sa’id al Khudri reports that some women said to the Holy Prophet:
‘men have gone ahead of us (in terms of acquisition of knowledge). Therefore appoint
a special day for our benefit as well.’ The Holy Prophet appointed one day for
them. He would meet them on that day, advise them and educate them about the commandments
of Allah Almighty.[32] In addition, women must
seat behind a veil which must be raised between men and women to prevent them
from having visual contact and when women scholars talk to men, it must be
behind a veil as well.
To the Sheikh,
however, going out for purposes like a general lecture for women, as men do is
not allowed. In Ihya, he reported
that “going out for purposes like a general lecture for women” is not allowed.
He mentioned some scholars such as bin Arafat, al-Mukhtasar, Al-khorash,
Abdul-Baaq, Ashabrakhiti as well as al-Mukhtasar who shared a similar view.
Contrarily, it is compulsory for her to go out and ask scholars if her husband
cannot teach her. However, if the husband is teaching her, she does not need to
go out and ask scholars even if his knowledge is limited. Instead, he should
ask on her behalf and deliver the answer to her. Otherwise, she must go out and
the husband is sinning by preventing her.[33]It is also incumbent on
the judge to force him to convey knowledge to her on things like expenditure,
and if he does not do, then the judge should allow her to go and seek for
knowledge. From all these, one will thus realize that nothing and nobody
prevents a woman/wife from going to gatherings of knowledge, zikr, and
admonitions – going out to learn fard is an obligation if their husbands cannot
teach them, whether the gatherings are solely female or they are behind the
veil with men. It is forbidden if they get to learn from their husbands to go
out or if the gathering is for men without a veil.[34]
(ii) Going out for Defection
In Islam, it is
quite allowed for women to go out to answer the call of nature if they do not
have toilets in their home. However, if they have, it is haram (forbidden), according to Ibn Hajar.[35] Bukhari reported a hadith
from A’ishat that the wives of the prophet (saw) went out in the night to
answer the call of nature over the sand. In Sahih Bukhari, Aishat reported the
Prophet to have said: “permission has been given to you to go out for your
needs (the “you” is plural for women). Hashim says “he means defecation.”[36]The Sheikh strongly agreed
to these but added that in all cases, women must cover their faces. In anyway,
women going out for defecation did not continue because soon after toilets were
built in the houses and they stopped going out except for a necessity.
(iii) Going out for obligatory prayer
Islam also has a
way of women going out to the mosque to perform sallatfardh (obligatory
prayer). There is no doubt that a woman’s prayer in her house is better for her
than praying in the mosque, as is indicated by the Sunnah of the Prophet. He
said: "Do not prevent your women from going to the mosque, even though
their houses are better for them.” [37] The Sheikh, certainly,
noted this but went ahead to state, however, that it is haram to the young
woman who has attained puberty and the popularly known by their beauty contrary
to the elderly who are not popular by their beauty. It is permissible for an
adult woman that has removed completely from herself the desire of a man and it
is recommended for the one that men have no desire towards her.[38] The Sheikh cited Gazzali
in Ihya who said that “we must stop
women from going out to the mosque for prayer if there is a fear of fitna (trouble) from them.”[39] On the whole, it seems
the Sheikh agreed with Al-Mukhtar on the going out of an adult woman for Eid
and prayer for rain and a young woman to a mosque provided that she is in
advanced age and whom men do not desire. It is also mandub for her to go to Eid prayer and prayer for rain and other
obligatory prayers while the adults who are attracted to men go to the mosque
for fard prayers on the conditions that they are not too youthful neither
attractive and smart, otherwise, they do not go out at all.
The
Sheikh also cited Al-Shabrakhitywho said in Al-Mukhtasar that scholars have
made it a condition for women to go out in the night, but they should not be
ornamented or perfumed. It is based on the Hadith that says that any woman that
has perfumed herself should not pray Isah’i with us and that they should not be
moving shoulder to shoulder with men and neither should a young woman whose
temptation is feared. She should also come out in her rough clothes without
apparently making up (beautifying) in such away to be noticed. As for make-up
that is not noticeable to men by looking or hearing a voice, there is no
problem withthat. Al-Bisatui added that she should not be famous forher beauty
(to avoid troubles). All these of course
in conformity with the Qur’an saying:
“And tell the
believing women to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things), and
protect their private parts (from illegal sexual acts) and not to show off
their adornment except only that which is apparent (like both eyes for
necessity to see the way, or outer palms of hands or one eye or dress like
veil, gloves, head cover, apron), and to draw their veils all over Juyoobihinna
(i.e. their bodies, faces, necks and bosoms) and not to reveal their adornment
except to their husbands…”[40]
(iv) Going out for Juma’at prayers
On the
appropriateness of going out for Jumu’at prayer, the Sheikh posited that it is
forbidden for the young women whose temptation is feared and it is disliked
(makruh) for the young that are not tempting. It is permissible for the elderly
that are no more attractive to men. He cited Al-Kharrashiwho said on the
explanation of Al-Mukhtasar that “it is detestable for a young lady whose
temptation is not feared to attend it.” I cannot stop her from attending it.
Abdu-Baqi added in the same place that “it is permissible for the adult that is
no more desired by man.”[41] As for the adult, she can
go for Eid prayers and is permissible. However, it is not permissible for the
young especially these days when mischief is rampant. It is recommended
(mustahab) for the old who have reached menopause to go to the mosque.[42]
(v) Going out for Eid Prayers
For Eid festival
prayer, the Sheikh also cited Al-kharshani while explaining Mukhtasr, where the
author said the adult can go out for Eid. This means that it is permissible
while it is mandub for the old, those who are no more desirable by men. Abdul
Baqi said as well as Al-Kharshani on the statement of the author and the merits
of the two Eid prayers, using perfume and ornament even for those who will not
pray, when they go outeven though old (post-menopause) they should not use
perfume and neither should they make up nor decorate themselves to avoid
tempting men.[43]
(vi)Going out for Prayer Seeking Rainfall
As for coming out
for prayer for rain, again, it is permissible for adults, but not for the
young. Again, Danfodiyo said Abdul Baqi said in the explanation of Mukhtasar
where the author discussed prayer for the rain that “they come out at Duha time
(morning) on foot with sacrifice and humility comprising of old people and old
women.” The Sheikh himself based himself on the saying of Allakhami that three
categories come out for Istisqa (prayer for rain): men, those who are old
enough to pray among the children, and the old women.[44]
(vii) Going out for funerals and visiting
ceremonies
As for their
coming out for funerals, there is an explanation for that. It is forbidden for
a young woman whose temptation is feared to attend a funeral. It is,
nonetheless, lawful to attend the funeral of someone very close to her whose
loss is a great pain to her like father, her mother, her husband, son,
daughter, sister, or brother. It is also permissible for an old woman to attend
the funeral of everyone. It is detestable to others apart from them, and it is
forbidden for her when there is a fear of temptation. This applies the same to
visiting the graves. In any case, if they must, then they must comply with the
Shari’ah such as covering themselves and behaving modestly. [45]
(viii) Going out for Pilgrimage
Going out for
pilgrimage for women is as obligatory as it is for men. However, women must
conform to the conditions in a few things mentioned by Sheikh Khalid in the
Mukhtasar. He explained that: a “Woman is like a man except that in walking
long distance and traveling by sea, except she is given special skill, backed
up by a Mahram (family member to protect her) to serve as company and
security.” In Al-Iktifa’, it is said that she must be “with women or men or in
a congregation.”[46]
(ix) Going out for Marriages
As for going out
for marriage, it is permissible if the marriage is for their relatives who
insisted that they must be there and the celebration is free from evil and
forbidden things. If there is evil like mixing of the opposite sex or playing
musical instruments and the likes, it is forbidden. Danfodiyo here
categorically, citing many sources, adduced the wife going out without covering
her face, attending marriages and feasts with both men and women dancing and
without covering her face and external parts of her body like the habits of the
Bedouins not permissible and not accepted. The husband is under the wrath of
Allah and so will be if she remains like that. On the whole, the Prophet is
reported to have said that: Keep a distance between the breath of men and that
of women.[47]
(x) Going out for buying and Selling in the Market
and other places
As for their going
out for buying and selling in the market and other places, there is also an explanation
for that it is permissible if they could not have somebody who can do that for
them like a husband or a Mahram or others among elderly women. It is forbidden
if they have who can do that for them among the people mentioned above. A young
girl’s going out is temptation. Let her sent someone among the old women whom
men will not look and neither will they bother about them and there is no more
fit na in their shape or way of talking. If that is not possible, then let her
get rid of her ornament. If a wife wants to buy a cloth, ornament, or other things,
let the husband do that himself if he can do it, or find someone who can
represent him based on the counsel of scholars. Danfodiyo fears that sitting
with people without morals and others whom they have an audience with and feel
comfortable with and sometimes to the extent of coming close to the possibility
of committing a great sin.[48]
(xi) Going out to Court
As for going out
to the court, there is also an explanation that it is permissible for the old
and for the young woman that is not famous for her beauty, but not permissible
for the young woman that is famous for her beauty. Moreover, it is commendable
for the judge to set aside time or a day for women like Mufti and the teacher that
is a specific time that he does not do proceedings excepts for women, or a specific
day in which he only takes cases of women and between men and women in three
stages: one day for women only, one day for men only and one day for both men
and women.[49]
As for the beautiful young woman, she does not come, but she should delegate.[50]
(xii) Going out to visit
As for coming out
for visit, it is permissible if they are going out to visit their relatives
among women or their Muharims among men when the need presents itself. It is
forbidden if their going out is to visit their beloved ones among men even if
they will meet with strangers mixed with their relatives like cousins (paternal
and maternal). Husbands do not have the right to prevent the parents and sons
of his wife from other men from visiting her. The Shari’at recommended the
observance of duties of kinship and that has become a habit. It is thus
incumbent on the husband to allow his wife to receive her relatives among women
in her privacy, but not the men, except for the Maharims. These include her
brother, her paternal and maternal uncles, and her nephew from her brother or
sister. He cannot prevent her from going out with them, but by preventing them
does reach the level of sin he gets from preventing her parents because indeed
there is no sin except in them.[51] However, when going out
for a journey, it is not permissible except with husbands or Maharims or a
trusted company. This is wajib. A woman should also not travel for half-day,
two or three days, or even a night without a related company. [52]
Review of the Main Thesis
In
Islam, the principle of women going out rests on legal necessity which is
sometimes worldly in nature. These amongst others include going out for their
basic needs, while some other times the necessity is religious in nature like
going out to ask scholars if their husbands cannot teach them. As far as the
Sheikh is concerned, women’s going out generally is forbidden except where it
is absolutely necessary. He, in most cases, reached his explanations using the
sayings of the Holy Prophet and different kinds of arguments and opinions of
scholars. He cited this hadith:
“Keep distance
between the breath of men and women because if you keep the nerve of a man in
the east and the nerve of a woman in the west, they will desire each other,
what more if they are engaged in hugging and jostling and other shameless
acts.”[53]
The Sheikh’s
brother, Abdullahi, however, was stricter on women going out. In fact, he
stated in his Kitab WathiqatulJawabi[54] that Allah will not
accept the worship (i.e.prayers, fasting, alms giving and pilgrimage) of anyone
who allows his wife to go out. He even goes to the extreme of considering such
a person as non-Muslim.[55] But the Sheikh disagrees
and said that such acts are only grave sins and that those who commit them may
not remain permanently in hell.[56]
Secondly,
it is incumbent upon the husband to teach his wife if she is ignorant of the Islamic
ruling. If he does not teach her, she should ask him to do so. If he does not
know, he should either ask and inform her or give her permission to learn.
However, if he does not allow her, and she goes out without his permission, it
is permissible. Women have rights on issues of religion which they were created
for...Allah says: “I did not create Jinni and mankind except for them to
worship me.”[57]
However, in Ihya’usSunnati[58] the Sheikh says that in
the event it becomes necessary for a woman to leave her matrimonial home for
work or anything, certain inappropriate practices must be avoided. Also, a man
should not be secluded with a woman who is not his wife or muharramat into places where they cannot be sighted by passers-by
even if they have no intention of sinning. A woman should not appear wearing a
light close or one that exposes her body. She should not also act provocatively
or suggestively or speak with an exaggerated voice. The Sheikh adds that a
woman can only go outside and work or conduct business under the above
conditions if she has no one to provide for her or if she is old or ugly. In
the end, however, the Sheikh points out that it is still better if the woman
does not go out even if she satisfied these conditions. Hishardposition is
summarized in the verses from his WakarLarura:
“O you women do not go out without aim,
Unless a slave or freeborn below puberty,
Under the pressure of compulsion and not atrocities,
All women except old ones are included,
Except one under necessity;
Unless for searching for compulsory knowledge,
Properly covering her body for God’s pleasure,
Isolation (with men) is not wanted and not allowed,
Exposure of the body is not rewarded,
She should ask on what constitutes necessity,
One who has a person to assist her,
Should not go out but rest in her room,
To practice her ibada
and there is enough for her,
Unless there is no husband or brother,
To teach her then this constitutes a necessity.”[59]
As stated above,
the Sheikh talks about compulsory learning. However, it appears, even this is
confined exclusively to learningfarḍ al-'ayn.[60] In IrshadulIkhwaniilaAhkamHuruinNiswani[61], the Sheikh adds that at
a place of learning, women must be separated from men and they should not see
each other. However, as expressed by his brother, Abdullahi[62] it is agreed that in the
event separation between men and women are not obtainable, the learning of fardainih is the more important consideration.[63]
The relevance of the Book
Islamic
Law has utilized as a general maxim the Prophet Muhammad’sstatement, “Women are
the equal partners of men.”[64]This means
that as a general principle, all of the rulings in Islam apply to both men and
women unless otherwise specified due to a relevant gender difference. However,
Islam came to protect women and
their honor, and prescribed rulings that take care of that. Allah says: And
stay in your houses.[65]Based
on this, the general principle is that women should stay at home and not go out
except for essential reasons or cases of need. Islam states that a woman’s
prayer at home is better for her than her prayer in the mosque.
This
does not mean that women have to remain prisoners in the house. Islam permits
them to go to the mosque and has made Hajj and Umra, Eid prayers, etc.
obligatory for them. Among the kinds of going out that are prescribed are going
to visit their family and mahrams,
and going out to ask religious questions from people of knowledge. Women are
also permitted to go out for their own needs.But all of these have to be within
the limits and conditions set out in Shari’a,
such as being accompanied by a mahram
when she travels or being assured that her route is safe when she moves about
in her city or locality. She should also go out wearing a complete hijab, and she should not be wearing
make-up, adornments, or perfume.
In today’s world,
to presume that Western open-mindednessis the only yardstick that represents
the standard of moral progress to which all other societies must accept is
nothing short of cultural imperialism that not only ignores and marginalizes
the experiences of women of other cultures but also calls upon them to erase
their identities and embrace the ‘superior’ values of European/North American
women.
In any case, critics have argued that
far from representing a bastion of moral enlightenment,
the modern Western value system is riddled with internal
contradictions such as promoting a culture of promiscuity and sexual
exploitation of women while simultaneously aiming to desexualize and
de-objectify male perceptions of women.[66] Also,
in attempting to dismantle the normal standard of the male breadwinner and
female homemaker, women have poured into the labor market, galvanizing the
engines of capitalism[67] in
ways that have unfairly burdened some women.[68]Islam
does not recognize this and clearly spelt that where conditions necessitate
that a woman must go out and work because she has no one to provide for her and
she has nothing to sustain herself, the work situation must be such that the
following are avoidable; isolation with men, chatting with men, exposure of her
body and attractive behavior.[69]
Islam recognizes
sexual attraction between men and women and teaches that it must be controlled
to provide a just social arrangement where economic goals include material and
spiritual considerations with the latter being the overriding consideration
where there exists a conflict between the two. In a recent survey in the US, a
positive correlation was observed between more women in the workplace and a rise
in adultery. They conceded that more women in the workplace meant greater access
to men and more chances for affairs.[70]
Also,
today’s workplace has become the commonest spot for married individuals to meet
affair partners. More men and women are breaking their marriage vows by
engaging in office friendships that slowly become romantic relationships. In
her book,Not ‘Just Friends’[71],
Dr. Shirley Glass says, “The new infidelity is between people who unwittingly
form deep, passionate connections before realizing that they’ve crossed the
line from platonic friendship into romantic love. Eighty-two percent of the 210
unfaithful partners I’ve treated have had an affair with someone who was, at
first, ‘just a friend.'” From 1991 to 2000, Glass discovered in her practice
that 50 percent of the unfaithful women and about 62 percent of unfaithful men
she treated were involved with someone from work. “Today’s workplace has become
the new danger zone of romantic attraction and opportunity.”[72]
From
these pieces of evidence it appears therefore that many factors can play a role
in causing infidelity. Islam has provided some basic rules to help avoid the
new infidelity by prohibiting much intermingling between sexes.
Conclusion
In conclusion,
this paper has demonstrated that the so much propaganda about women's
liberation and rights, freedom over work and living expressed by women
activists and movements are certainly not in agreement with the way of
Islam.Islam greatly protects Muslim women. It provides for them to go out only
when it is necessary and put most of their burden on men. This no doubt affords
tranquility in our societies thereby preventing sexual harassments and
infidelity in the society. This is certainly the view of Danfodiyo, as it is
generally in Islam.
REFERENCES
Contact Amsoshi.
[1]Elinor Burkett, ‘Women’s Right
Movement’: https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Elinor-Burkett/5529.
[2]Ibraheem Sulaiman, “Women and
Society’, Speech delivered at the launching of Muslim Ladies’ Movement at the
School of
Preliminary Studies, Kano State Institute of Higher Studies, Kano, on
26/10/1978.
[3]S.J. Hogben &A.H.M. Kirk-Green,
The Emirates on Northern Nigeria,
London, Oxford University, 1966, p.116.
[4] M. Junaidu, TarihinFulani , Zaria, Gaskiya Corporation, 1956, p.9, M .Last, The Sokoto Caliphate London,
Longman, 1967,
p. 3.
[5]S.J.Hogben, An Introduction to the Islamic
States of Northern Nigeria, London, 1967, p.198., M. Hiskett, The
Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of The
Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio,
London, Oxford, 1978., M.I. Talata
Mafara, DaularUsmaniyya 1 -3, Kaduna, Nadabo
Print, 1999, p.19.
[6]Junaidu, op.cit, pp.9-10.
[7] Last, op.cit, pp. 5-6.
[8] Ibid.
[9]M.Hiskett, The Development of Islam in Hausaland, London, 1973, p.58.
[10] B.A.S. Muhammad, ‘Women Labour in
Islam: The Views of Usman Danfodiyo’, Being
a Seminar Paper
presented to the Faculty of Social Sciences and
Administration,
UDUS, Sokoto, 22/09/1998
[11]
Abdullahi Dan Fodiyo, Tazyin’l-Waraqaat,
trans. M. Hisket, M. Junaidu,,p.10, M.Last, p.6.
[12]R.A.Adeleye, Power and Diplomacy
in Northern Nigeria 1804 – 1906: The Sokoto Caliphate and its
Enemies,
London, Longman Group, 1977, p.12.
[13]Hiskett, op.cit, p..42.
[14] Ibid.
[15] Hogben, p.199, M. Junaidu,
,p.11.
[16] Ibrahim Sulaiman, The Revolution in History: The Jihad of
Usman Danfodio, London 1986.
[17] Hogben, op.cit.
[18] B.A.S. Muhammad, op.cit.
[19]M.Adamu, ‘A General History of the
Sokoto Caliphate’, in A.M.Kani and K.A.Gandi eds, State &
Society in
the Sokoto Caliphate, Sokoto 1990, p.8.
[20]M.Watts, Silent Violence:Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria,
Berkely& Los Angeles,
1983, p.149.
[21] Sheikh Othman bn Fodiyo, ‘Guiding
the Brothers on the Rules of Women Going Out’, trans by Y.I. Nabingo, in
A.B. Yahaya ed, Selected Writings of Sheikh Othman bn Fodiyo, Vol. 3, Gusau, ND,
p.333.
[22]Ibid.
[23]IbraheemSulaiman, op.cit.
[24]Ibid.
[25] Quran 96: 1-5.
[26]Sunan Ibn Mājah 224
[27] Ibid.
[28] Ibid, p.335.
[29] Sheikh, op.cit, p.334.
[30] Ibid.
[31] Ibid.
[32] Narrated by al-Bukhari in
al-Sahih, 1-50
[33]
Sheikh, op.cit, p.334.
[34] Ibid.
[35] Cited by Bn Fodio, Ibid, p.338
[36] Ibid., p.339.
[37] Reported by Abu Dawud in al-Sunan,
Baab maa jaa’a fee khurooj al-nisaa’ ilaa’l-masjid: Baab al-tashdeed fee
dhaalik.
See also Saheeh al-Jaami‘, no. 7458).
[38] Ibid.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Interpretation of the meaning,
Qur’an: al-Noor 24:31.
[41] Ibid.
[42] Sheikh Othman…., p.340.
[43] Ibid.
[44] Ibid., p.340.
[45] Ibid., p. 341.
[46] Ibid., p.342.
[47] Ibid.
[48] Ibid, p. 343
[49] Ibid., p.343.
[50] Ibid.
[51] Ibid, p.344.
[52] 345.
[53] B.A.S. Muhammad, op.cit, p.5.
[54] Abdullahi, Kitab Wathiqatul awabi,
n.d., cited by B.A.S, Muhammad.
[55] B.A.S. Muhammad, op.cit, p.5.
[56] Ibid.
[57] Qur’an, 51:56
[58] Usman Danfodiyo, Ihya’usSunnati,
n.d., trans. In to Hausa by Ahmed Sabir 1984, BUK
[59] Usman Danfodiyo, WakarLarura, Hausa version, N/D,
Department of Languages, Abdullahi Bayero College,
Kano, cited
by Muhammad, op.cit.
[60]Individual duty or farḍ
al-'ayn relates is required to perform,
such as daily prayer (salat), and the pilgrimage to
Mecca at least once in a lifetime (hajj).
Sufficiency duty or farḍ al-kifāya is a
duty which is imposed on the whole
community of believers (ummah).
[61] Usman Danfodiyo,
IrshadulIkhwaniilaAhkamHuruinNiswani, n.d., trans. Into English by M.I.
T/Mafara,
Sokoto 1983.
[62] A. Abdullahi, Tazyin al-Waraqat,
ed and trans. By Hiskett, Ibadan 1983.
[63] Muhammad, op.cit.
[64]Sunan al-Tirmidhī, 113
65al-Ahzaab
33:3
[66]For a discussion of such arguments,
see Anne Barnhill, “Modesty as a Feminist Sexual Virtue,” in Out From the Shadows: Analytical
Feminist Contributions to Traditional Philosophy, edited by Sharon L. Crasnow and Anita
M. Superson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), pp. 115-137. From a
social psychology perspective, see Cikara, M., Eberhardt, J. L., & Fiske,
S. T. (2011). From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to
sexualized targets. Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience,
23, 540-551.
[67]Fraser, Nancy. How feminism became
capitalism’s handmaiden – and how to reclaim it. The Guardian. Oct 14,
2013. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/14/feminism-capitalist-handmaiden-neoliberal
[68]Slaughter, Anne-Marie. Why Women
Still Can’t Have it All. The Atlantic. 2012. https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2012/07/why-women-still-cant-have-it-all/309020/
[69] Ibid., p.9.
[70] . Adler, ‘Infidelity in the 90s’,
Newsweek Magazine, Vol. CXXVIII, No. 14, New Yolk, 1998, cited by Muhammad,
ibid.
[71] Shirley Glass, Not Just Friends,
USA, Simon & Schuster, 2007
[72] Ibid.
1 Comments
I like amsoshi.com. Keep it up.
ReplyDeleteENGLISH: You are warmly invited to share your comments or ask questions regarding this post or related topics of interest. Your feedback serves as evidence of your appreciation for our hard work and ongoing efforts to sustain this extensive and informative blog. We value your input and engagement.
HAUSA: Kuna iya rubuto mana tsokaci ko tambayoyi a ƙasa. Tsokacinku game da abubuwan da muke ɗorawa shi zai tabbatar mana cewa mutane suna amfana da wannan ƙoƙari da muke yi na tattaro muku ɗimbin ilimummuka a wannan kafar intanet.