This article is published by the Zamfara International Journal of Humanities.
Manta G.
Yadok
Department of English & Literary Studies,
Federal University Wukari,
Taraba - Nigeria.
manta@fuwukari.edu.ng
&
Rinret W. Lukden
Department
of English & Literary Studies,
Federal University Wukari,
Taraba - Nigeria.
rinret@fuwukari.edu.ng
Abstract
Psychological issues of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are not restricted toindividuals, rather, they could be triggered
by communal issues in which the traumatic
experiences of an individual are understood
through the social and cultural context. There are several creative texts that
engage these issues in discourse and
HelonHabila’s The Chibok Girls is one of
such. Particularly, The Chibok Girls explores
experiences of the secondary victims which include parents of the kidnapped
girls in Chibok town, Borno state
Nigeria, Chibok community and security operatives assigned to superintend in
the locality where the tragic event
happened. Although the text uses an investigative reportage, the paper is guided by two major tasks. First, it engages
Balaev’s argument on traumatic experience to demonstrate how
trauma is not a specific experience of an individual rather it seeks to affirm
that an individual’s trauma
originates from a collective pool of experiences that are repressed and shared
by members of a specific clime.
Therefore, understanding trauma is a function of understanding societal state. Second, this paper explores how
some characters in the text have developed coping mechanisms and how few of them resigned to fate in managing their emotions with a ‘hopeful’
resolve of the ‘possible return’ of the missinggirls. This paper is not a political critique,
but it reconnoiters the polemics
associated with the repressed
emotions of the characters in terms of securing the freedom of the kidnapped
girls and highlights the failure
of key political actors to secure
the rights of its citizens.
Introduction
Helon
Habila, adopting an investigative journalist approach, recounts the
kidnapping in April 2014 of 276 girls from a government secondary school in Chibok town of Borno State, Nigeria. The government is alleged to have negotiated the release ofabout
83 of them while 113 are still with the abductors. The girls were believed
to have been ‘taken’ by the extremist jihadist sect known as Boko Haram
which means ‘Westerneducation is abhorrent” Helon
Habila gives insight as to how
‘radicalism can keep a country under hostage, a country where corruption
is rife, government is dysfunctional and the young people alienated’
This
paper focuses on traumatized characters and
their coping mechanisms. It also explores how
Helon Habila willingly become a victim of trauma by recollecting, political, social and historical experiences as one raised in
the North Eastern part of Nigeria
which is currently
bedeviled with insurgency. The Nigerian novel has evolved and drawn
into a wide field of discourse
such a trauma studies. It is expedient to note that
trauma has always been a major preoccupation of literary texts
of what makes up Nigerian Literature. The works of Cyprian
Ekwensi, Chinua Achebe and even mythical characters of Amos Tutuola
and others have contained tropes of traumatized characters which have
not been given due attention in the critical enterprise.
Sigmund Freud’s hypotheses concerning the unconscious and
the workings of repression laid the foundation and popular diffusion
of the concept ‘trauma’ which is Freud’s
psychoanalytic tool for the
exploration of human psyche which laces
emphasison the viability of the “conscious mind and unconscious” as a guide to understand the workings of the mind/interior of traumatized characters. Dobbie (2002:56) argues that the unconscious
mind can be regarded as the force behind a number of physical acts perpetrated by humans and this is analogous to the small portion
of an iceberg that is visible above the surface
of a water body but which is a large part of
the iceberg buried beneath the surface of the
water.
Thus,
this paper examined
how repressed thoughts,
feelings, and ideas reenact themselves from the unconscious mind of the characters to find an outlet; and at the same time how it influences the character’s behaviors.
In defining trauma,
the American Psychiatric Association (2013) describes trauma as a ‘post- traumatic stress disorder’. It is also
defined as a “mental disorder thatcan develop after a person is exposed to traumatic events such as
sexual assault, warfare,
traffic collisions or other threats”. Experiences of Post-Traumatic
Stress Disorder may manifest in form of frequent painful
recollections, flashbacks, feeling
withdrawn or separate from others,
thoughts of
suicide and tendency towards
anger and violence.
Caruth (1996:67) notes that post- traumatic
stress disorder is a reflection of the direct
imposition on the mind of the unavoidable reality of horrific events, the taking over of the mind and event that cannot be controlled
‘(67). For Caruth post- traumatic
stress disorder, (PTSD)
seems to provide
the most direct link between the psyche and eternal violence.
In reviewing trauma texts, critical
appraisals of Iweala’s
text also accentuates the fact that it is a traumatic literary piece, because
it dwells on the traumatic experiences of a child
soldier.
The
novel explored by Omobowale and Adebayo (2018)
in their paper titled “Narrative war, trauma and the banality
of evil: Narrative
aesthetics and the representation of PTSD in Beast of No Nation”
centered on narrative
aesthetics such as the site of trauma being met with the inability to express itself
in a legible and logical language as seen in the lack of
coherence in sentences
by the protagonist. Omobowale and Adebayo absorbed Cathy’s belief on narrative
aesthetics in the post colony and how it argues for more politically engaged discussions especially in the collection and social contest.
In view of the above, this paper, overall, argues
that Michealle Bailaev’s
Trauma Theory is a viable
paradigm with which to investigate
the social and cultural milieu of the text as further
reinforced by the argument of Cathy Caruth.
Theoretical Framework
The
evolution of trauma theory in literary criticism might best be understood in terms
of the changing psychological definitions of trauma as well as the semiotic, theoretical and
social concerns that are part of the
study of trauma in literature and
society. The allure of the classic model
exists in the painting of neurobiological theories regarding the processes of the mind and the memory together
with semiotic theories
regarding the processes
of language associations, and symbolization. Yet if the psychological basis of trauma is re-examined, then the classic
model fails to fit the laws of structuraland
post-structural linguistics. This is to
suggest that the traditional Laconia approach
only works if the psychological definition of trauma conforms to a particular theoretical recipe that draws from Freud to portray traumatic
experience as a pre-linguistic event
but universally causes dissociation 995).
The
range of pluralistic models showcased in this collection moves away from the focus on trauma
as un-representable and toward a focus on the specificity of trauma that locates
meaning through a greater consideration of the social
and cultural contexts
of traumatic experiences which is being
posited by Michelle Baleav. Balaev re- evaluates
Caruth’s theory to be the traditional paradigm
of trauma studies. Baleav moves from the personal
experience of trauma
to a collective experience.
Baleav also moves from the causes of trauma
to the effects of trauma,
and from
what is traditionally and individual
psychological disorder to a
collective disorder. Thus, locality trauma
in psychoanalysis is through the defense mechanism tactic developed by the ego to protect it against anxiety. The ego helps
to cope with the conflicting
demands of the id and the super ego. The defense
mechanisms are thought
to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are
too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. Scholars have described over
twenty (20) defense
mechanisms but for the sake of this paper, four of these defense mechanisms are examined and they include:
1.
Denial
2.
Repression and suppression
3.
Rationalization
4. Sublimation
i.
Denial: this is an outright
refusal to agree or recognize that something has happened or is currently occurring. Victims of traumatic events may deny thatthe event ever transpired. Denial functions to protect the ego fromcircumstances with which the individual cannot cope.
ii.
Repression and suppression: repression acts to keep information out
ofconscious awareness. However,
these memories don’t just disappear, instead, they continue
to influence our behaviour, the memories from our awareness are believed
to occur unconsciously.
iii.
Rationalization: this is a defense
mechanism that involves
explaining an unacceptable behavior or feeling
in a rational or logical
manner, avoiding the true reason
for the behavior. Rationalization also protects self-esteem and self- concept.
iv. Sublimation: is a defense mechanism that allows us to act out of unacceptable impulses by converting these behaviors into a more acceptable form, Freud believed that sublimation is a sign of maturity that allows people to function normal in socially acceptable ways.
In addition to locating trauma within
the Ego Axis, Terry Eagleton (2008:159) suggests that “the link between
the ego and the external
reality is ruptured
and the unconscious begins to build
up an alternative, delusional reality”.
Eagleton added that if the neurotic may develop a paralyzed arm, the psychotic
may believe that
his
arm has turned into an elephant trunk. Since, in the Freudian psychoanalytic theory,
psychotic and neurotic
thoughts and perceptions are severely impaired.
On a whole, defense mechanisms can be both good and bad by protecting your ‘ego’ from stress and providing a healthy outlet.In
other instances, these defense mechanisms
might hold you back form facing reality
and can act as a form of self-deception.
Traumatized Characters in the Text
The victims of trauma can be
categorized into two. The first
victims are usually those directly involved in traumatic experiences and the secondary victims are those who
areindirectly involved. In the text
the The Chibok Girls the primary
victims are the girls kidnapped by ‘Boko Haram’
and the secondary victims are the “girls” parents,
neighbours, people living in Chibok and areas troubled
by Boko Haram activities, and passionate Nigerians who continue
to await their
return. As earlier
posited, trauma is usually located
within the Ego when the link between the
Ego and the external reality is ruptured and
the unconscious begins to build up an alternative, delusional reality. This is what
Caruth (1996) notes as most direct between the psyche
and external violence and thus results to the conflicting demands of the Id and the
super Ego through the defense mechanism.
Most of the characters are unnamed, and unveiled through their professional titles. The first character is a soldier whose coping mechanism is repression and suppression This is evident in his behavior as he shouts aggressively at Helon Habila and his entourage he feels they were intentionally trying to bypass the stop and search posts. The soldier shouted and said;
“you
think, you think….
So you are civilian
JTF? So what?
Four months we have been here without salary, our friends are killed byBoko
Haram and I am sick….
I go keep you here for hours in this sun” pg.15
The
excerpt above clearly
indicates this character
has been traumatized by the events
of the Boko Haram activities
over time and for him to remain on the job, he has to subdue his emotions.
These memories do not disappear or exist
in oblivion. They continue to influence his behavior and trigger memories
which occur unconsciously. Helon Habila was only glad
that soldier was not having a gun.
Like the character Agu inthe Beast of
No Nation the site of trauma is met by a repetitive phrase in the first line asthe soldier
yells out in anger. As for Agu, he had a lot of incoherence speech.
Secondly, an unarmed father of one of the kidnapped girls whose coping mechanism is denial
lost his life, as captured on pg. by 74, of the text The Chibok Girls denial functionsto
protect the Ego from things
with which the individual cannot
accept. It is obvious thefather could not accept the fate that had befallen
of his daughter. It was depicted on several occasions
that he goes to the
mountains shouting his daughter’s name before he finally died of
depression.
Rationalization is a defense
mechanism that involves explaining an unacceptable
behavior or feeling in a rational
manner by avoiding the true reasons
for the behavior. This is reflected in the conversation
of the narrator and the unnamed driver from the airport
who rationalized the activities
of the text when Habila asked him of his
view he recounts “we accept modernity too quickly…
we spill our secrets to the white men, everything
we know, we go and tell them for reward
all in the name of western education”. (pg57).
With this reply, one can only wonder if the driver is also member of the Boko Haram or he
is trying to stay safe.
Lastly, sublimation is a defense
mechanism that allows individuals act out unacceptable impulses by converting the behaviors into a more acceptable
form. A vividaccount is seen in the burial rites carried out in absentia
for the kidnapped girls as a means of closure for the traumatized parents on (pg. 74).
As earlier posited, Helon Habila too,
the author of the text The Chibok Girls has unwittingly become a victim
of trauma through
his collection of collective experiences of the traumatized victims. Habila started by recollecting how the version
of Islam he knew while growing up was a peaceful
religion, he reminisced those times he and his Muslim neighbors
share things in common and begins to wonder how the trajectory has changed. By embarking on a herculean
task to gather different accounts
from the traumatized
characters, Habila brings to the fore a reality that people react differently to traumatic events,
even in terms of neurobiological responses as posited
by Balaev.
the
effects of trauma on national development
Davis
and Williams (2015)
observed that a nexus
exists between trauma and national
development. It impacts
the broader community and is referred to as collective trauma which is an aggregate of trauma experienced by community members
or an event that impacts a few people but has structural and social traumatic consequences. They also affirm
that the symptoms of community
trauma are the product of economic, political
and social isolation, a lack of investment in economic development leads to high levelsof violence, and the maintenance
and improvement in the built environment,
the loss ofsocial capital with the flight of middle class families and the concentration of poverty and exposure. The atmosphere
in Chibok was filled with tension, palpable fear and uncertainties. Most people declined granting interviews and a number
of them did not know who to trust: as
noticed in the case of the Vice-Principal of the Government secondary
school in Chibok. Even men clearly turned down interviews as a result of the “kidnap”, schools
were closed down, the teachers had to stay at home without pay
and with constant threat
from the government not to say anything to the press.
Education which is the bedrock
of any country is gradually
being crippled by the activities of the Boko Haram Sect.
The evils perpetrated by the Boko Haram members cuts across religious climes which
is evident in the mutual experiences of the characters, both Christians and Muslims are affected. In many cases, trauma can actually strengthen the memory of anevent as noted
by Balaev and Caruth. People who develop post- traumatic stress disorder
have traumatic experiences causing them to experience
serial flashbacks of the events rather experiencing repression. Thus making Helon Habila have a collective memory that is socially and historically induced
by the events that chronologically led to what the state is currently experiencing
in the North East. This expresses the
laxity on the side of the leaders to
curtail security issues. At the moment,
Nigeria’s most challenging problem is how
to keep its citizens safe. Nigeria has been ranked
as one of the most unsafe places to go in the
world and this has grounded a number of businesses, potential investors are risk averse concerning the country, thereby increasing
the rate of poverty.
It has also been observed that female characters in the text were either not properly covered or had more absorption of pain than the males. Conversely, the male counterparts easily gave up i.e. the two fathers who died out of Post- Traumatic Stress Disorder. The death of the men obviously, reduced, the workforce of a nation, it will also cripple the economy and increase the number of widows, child dropouts and subsequently creating new crop of nuisance.
Conclusion
This paper has demonstrated that trauma is not restricted to the confines of personal experiences alone rather it is a function of a collective shared experience. This indeed emphasizes the idea of trauma as a function of societal reality into which all individuals in that society are implicated. The parents of the kidnapped Chibok girls and Nigerians have continued to be hopeful as a result of several campaigns pioneered around the world by prominent personalities such as Michelle Obama and Oby Ezekwesili who championed the cause of the Bring Back Our Girls Campaign through the media, long walks, prayers and advocacy in small groups. These and many more reflect the collective experience shared as a result of the effects of trauma.
References
Caruth, C.(1995). Trauma: Explorations in Memory, 3–12. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Dobie,
A. B .(2003).Theory into Practice: An Introduction to Literary Criticism
:Harvard, Harvard University Press .
Eagleton,
T. (2008). Literary Theory: An introduction. Anniversaryed. Oxford: Blackwell publishing. Habila,Helon (2016).
The Chibok Girls.,
Paressia Publishers Ltd.
Morello
and Balaev (2014). The Nature of Trauma in American Novels”Symploke vol.22,
No. 12 Winterspring, pg. 422.
Omobowale and Adebayo
(2018). Negotiating Trauma and the Evil Narrative Aesthetics and the representation of PTSD in ‘Beast of No Nation‘ Literary and Linguistic Perspectives on orality, Literacy
and Gender studies
Pinderhughes, H., Davis R.A., and
Williams, M. Adverse
Community Experiences and Resilience: A Framework for Addressing and Preventing Community
Trauma.
Starr, Anthony
(2001).Freud .A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press.
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