EFFECTS OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE ON WOMEN’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SOKOTO STATE

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EFFECTS OF INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE ON WOMEN’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN SOKOTO STATE

By 

SANUSI ABDULWASIU
Department of Social Studies
Shehu Shagari College of Education (SSCOE) Sokoto
GSM:08039368067
Email: sanusiabdulwasiu@gmail.com

and

KABIRU MUSA
Department of Social Studies
Shehu Shagari College of Education (SSCOE) Sokoto
GSM:07036091071
Email: kabirumusa300@gmail.com

Abstract

Women in Africa, like their counterparts the world over, suffer intimate partner violence (IPV) irrespective of class, age, religion or social status. It is estimated that one in every four women suffers this violence at the hands of those who claim to love and protect them. It has been proved that 33% of every married woman, aged 15-45 years experienced emotional, physical or sexual violence committed by their current or most recent husband/partner in Sokoto State. The recent data on intimate partner violence in Sokoto State indicated that 725 reported cases were recorded from March 2020 to June 2021. Sadly enough, this has a multiplying effect on the socio-economic status of the affected women. It’s against this background, that the study aims to examine the effect of intimate partner violence on women's socio-economic development in Sokoto State. The research is purely qualitative. While data from the secondary source were derived from books, journals, the internet and relevant sources, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) was adopted to generate the primary data. The response from FGD was analyzed thematically according to the research objectives and transcribed into the language of the research. Ministry for Women Affairs was hand-picked to generate the survival list, and forty survivors were purposively selected to collect pieces of information on the effect of intimate partner violence on women’s socio-economic development in Sokoto State. the results indicate that Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) has high economic costs on Sokoto state women's socio-economic growth, lower labour supply, reduced productivity, and less investment in human capital among others. It also shows that IPV has a great impact on women’s participation in education, employment and civic life thereby undermining poverty reduction efforts etc. The paper recommended that governments and institutions should put in place mechanisms to address persistent Intimate Partner Violence in rural areas and come to the aid of victims. Similarly, tougher sanctions should be put in place by necessary government agencies to bring to book perpetrators of this heinous crime against women.

Keywords: Intimate Partner Violence, Survivals, Sokoto, Effects

DOI: 10.36349/zamijoh.2023.v02i01.005

Introduction

The word violence has strong connotations in ideological terms and its meaning is constantly changing. Although, violence is not gender-specific as both men and women are victims of violence. However, there is enough gender-specific violence which underlies the subordinate position of women in Nigeria to warrant a focus on women as victims of intimate partner violence (IPV).Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is one of the most common types of violence experienced by women and most reported cases of IPV are perpetrated by men towards women (WHO, 2018). Daily women are beaten and "punished" for supposed transgressions, raped and even murdered by members of their families (Fatusi and Alatise, 2006). In some cases, vicious acid attacks leave them with horrific disfigurements. Girls and young women are forced into early marriage by parents and relatives.This is true, particularly when juxtaposing a series of women abused profiles across the board documented by various scholars. For instance, Adidu and Amnesty International reported the following:

In 1987, a 12-year-old Hausa girl, from northern Nigeria died after having both legs amputated by her husband for repeatedly running away from him after she was forced to marry him  (Adidu, 2001).Sometime in 1999, an uncle sexually assaulted a little girl of six years old. The matter was taken to court and prosecuted. In giving judgment, however, the magistrate set the accused person free for lack of “corroboration evidence”. This was despite the bloodied pants, the testimony of the mother who noticed the pains while bathing her and the medical evidence from a government hospital. The magistrate said corroboration meant testimony from another person who witnessed the alleged act (Except for an interview with a human rights defender by Amnesty International, 2004). In a similar trend, in the year 2003, a certain young girl “Folake” was jailed after she accused a man of rape. A domestic worker, she said her employer’s husband had forced her into his bedroom and made her watch a pornographic film before forcing her to have sex. A medicalexamination supported her allegation. Yet she was the one brought to court, charged with slander for making the accusation and remanded in prison (Amnesty International Interview with “Folake”, 2004).

Just recently, the International Human Right Movement (IHRM) Sokoto chapter, reported a scenario that occurred precisely around February 2022 where a young girl with name Shamsiya Muhammad was strangulated to death after being raped by her partner in Shagari town of Sokoto state (IHRM,2022). Similar issues have been recorded in many towns of the state over the years. While some died as a result of the accumulated consequences, some survived the abuse. This and many similar occurrences have buttressed the saying that in Nigeria, just like in many African countries, women are frequently victimized twice. First by the violence they endure and by the failure of the governments to bring their abuser(s) to justice (Adidu, 2001).In support of this claim, Narayans et al. (2000) affirm that in many social contexts, domestic violence, whether sexual, physical or psychological, is supported by social norms such as a cultural ideology which promotes the primacy of men over women. Husbands, partners and fathers are responsible for most of the violence against women. The violence persists because discriminatory laws condone and even legalize certain forms of violence against women, and again, dismissive attitudes within the police and an inaccessible justice system compound the failures of the state to protect women’s rights(World Health Organization, 2002). The criminal justice system and the Police provide little protection for the victims and often dismiss domestic violence as a family matter and fail to investigate or press charges (Narayans et al.2000).

According to a recent World Bank report, the estimated costs of intimate partner violence across five countries is 1.2–3.7 percent of GDP, the same as what most governments spend on primary education (Klugman, Hanmer, Twigg, Hasan, McCleary-Sills & Santa, 2014). To buttress the above is the World Health Organisation report that 40-70% of murders of women are committed by their husbands or boyfriends (World Health Organization, 2002). In the existing contextual issue, scholars in the related field have brought forward some issues in gender violence and suggested some recommendations on which gender-based violence could be defeated in Nigeria. These rising issues such as gender inequalities, discrimination, sexual harassment, domestic violence, intimate partner violence etc., have variously been looked into. However, these features are still evident and very much exist in many states in Nigeria. This paper focused on the effects of intimate partner violence on women’s socio-economic development in Sokoto state. The paper was divided into five interrelated parts,  including the introductory session. Part two dwells on the literature review while part three focused on the methodology adopted for the study. Part four is the analysis of the discussion and part five is the conclusion and recommendations

Statement of the Problem

In Sokoto state, available records show that IPV is prevalent in the area. The National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS,) statistics show that at least 33 percent of every married woman, aged 15-49 years experienced emotional, physical or sexual violence committed by their current or most recent husband/partner in Sokoto State (NDHS, 2018). The recent data on intimate partner violence in Sokoto State indicated that over 725 reported cases were recorded from March 2020 to June 2021 (GBV, 2022). Sadly enough, this has a multiplying effect on the socio-economic status of the affected women. For instance, the economic costs of gender violence include expenditures on service provision, decreased productivity, and negative impacts on human capital formation, which are burdensome to developing economies. Violence against women can further instill fear and insecurity in women’s lives and that will affect their ability to work or struggle for means of survival.

According to United Nations [UN] (1995) reports, the fear of violence, including harassment, is a permanent constraint on the mobility of women and limits their access to resources and basic activities. The Global Commission on Women’s Health, (UNO, 1996) reports that in addition to morbidity and mortality, violence against women leads to psychological trauma, depression, substance abuse, injuries, sexually transmitted diseases and Human Immune Virus (HIV) infection, suicide and murder, etc. This, without any doubt, is a crack into women's socio-economic development and it’s against this background, that the study aims to examine the effect of IPV on women's socio-economic development in Sokoto State. The study intends to seek answers to the following research questions: What are the effects of Intimate Partner Violence on the socio-economic development of women in Sokoto state?How knowledgeable are Sokoto state women in Intimate Partner Violence?What are the perceived causes of Intimate Partner Violence against women in Sokoto State?

Research Objectives

The main objective of the study is to investigate the effect of Intimate Partner Violence on the Socio-Economic Development of Women in Sokoto state while the narrow objectives are:

1.             To examine Sokoto women's knowledge about Intimate Partner Violence

2.             To find out the perceived causes of Intimate Partner Violence against women in Sokoto state

Literature Review

Intimate Partner Violence

Gender-based violence is a broad term that encompasses domestic violence, intimate partner violence, politically motivated violence, sexual harassment and violence in the workplace. (Ellsberg and Gottmoeller). Intimate Partner Violence refers to any behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship (WHO, 2013). Intimate partner violence (IPV) is domestic violence by a current or former spouse or partner in an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner (Mitchell, 2009, Larsen, 2016). IPV can take many forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic and sexual abuse (Larsen, 2016). The World Health Organization (WHO) defines IPV as "any behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviours (WHO, 2013). IPV is sometimes referred to simply as the battery, or as a spouse or partner abuse ((Mitchell, 2009). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) identifies four types of intimate partner violence, thus: Physical violence, sexual violence, economic violence and psychological aggression (CDC, 2015).  Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm (CDC, 2016). Sexualviolence is constituting forceful intercourse with a woman. Psychological aggression is the use of verbal and nonverbal communication with the intent to harm another person mentally or emotionally, and/or to exert control over another person.

 

Socio-Economic Development

 According to Fritz (2004), cited in (Olojede et al, 2020: 73), Socioeconomic development is a planned and comprehensive advancement in the economic, social, cultural and political processes. It is essentially the continual improvement in the well-being of the entire population. This reveals that socioeconomic development involves progress in terms of economic and social factors within a geographic unit. Therefore, Social development refers to the complexity of social dynamics (the interplay of social structures, processes and relationships) and focuses on (1) the social concerns of the people as objectives of development and (2) people-centred, participatory approaches to development. Social development is about inclusiveness, social justice and the common good. Indicators of social development provide comparative information about areas such as income, poverty, employment, employment security, education, health, crime and civic participation. Sometimes social development indicator lists also have included information about the environment.

 Economic development on the other hand is the process of raising the level of prosperity through increased production, distribution and consumption of goods and services (Kriti & Tisdell, 2003). Richard Estes, a co-developer of Hong Kong’s social report in 2000, noted that the report included a sub-index on environmental quality with ratings of solid waste recycling, beaches, public open space and freshwater consumption (Kriti & Tisdell, 2003). Hence, the purpose of socio-economic development is to improve the social and material well-being of all individuals and social institutions to achieve the highest possible level of human development. Socioeconomic development, therefore, requires the integration of economic and social development. Progress in the quality of social and economic life should only be seen as progress if it is rights-based and minimally affects, conserves or improves the natural environment (Kriti & Tisdell, 2003).

Intimate Partner Violence and Socio-Economic Development Among Women

Daily women are beaten and "punished" for supposed transgressions, raped and even murdered by members of their families (Fatusi and Alatise, 2006). In some cases, vicious acid attacks leave them with horrific disfigurements. Girls and young women are forced into early marriage by parents and relatives. In many communities in Nigeria (Fatusi and Alatise, 2006), the traditional practice of female genital mutilation continues to traumatize young girls and leave women with lifelong pain and damage to their health. Such violence is all too frequently excused and tolerated in communities where women are assigned an inferior role, subordinate to the male, head of the family. In support of this claim, Narayans et al. (2000) affirm that in many social contexts, domestic violence, whether sexual, physical or psychological, is supported by social norms such as a cultural ideology which promotes the primacy of men over women. Husbands, partners and fathers are responsible for most of the violence against women.

Intimate Partner violence against women has a lot of devastating effects, which also affect women’s development in several ways. Human needs as postulated by Maslow (1954) cited in  (Olojede et al, 2020) are arranged in order of hierarchy of potency. The lower basic needs are potent and dominant in the demand for satisfaction and survival of the individual. When human safety needs (security, stability, freedom from fear, threat, avoidance of pain, and protection from danger) are addressed with appropriate life intervention, there will be upward progression in the career development of a woman. However, when these needs are threatened by domestic violence, a gap is created and normal behaviour and actual functioning of the individual performance achievement is affected (Olojede et al, 2020). At this point, behaviour maladjustment problems occur affecting the performance and socio-economic development of the women.

Tolman and Rosed (2007) reported that intimate partner violence often sabotages women’s efforts to gain employment, and acquire job skills and education thus hindering their opportunities to become self-reliant. It also has the potential of influencing their economic stability and sustainability. Furthermore, intimate partner violence is considered an indirect barrier to women’s ability to job search for and maintain employment due to the increased risk of health limitations or health problems of someone in their care usually a child (Wilson, Nicholas, 2019). Emotionally some women suffer major physical injuries, scratches, bruises, broken bones, internal bleeding, and head trauma to mention but a few. In most cases, they are forced to miss work to go and see a doctor or stay at home because of health conditions (Olojede et al, 2020).

According to UN Women (2016), the cost of violence against women (public, private and social) amounts to US$1.5 trillion at the global level. The World Bank (2018) found that violence against women costs up to 3.7 percent of the GDP in some countries. Although the sub-Saharan African region has the highest level of domestic violence against women, empirical studies about its potential economic impact are scarce, mainly due to data limitations. One study found that gender-based violence costs South Africa between 0.9 and 1.3 percent of GDP annually (KPMG, 2014), while another study revealed that violence against women and girls costs the Ghanaian economy around 0.9 percent of GDP (Raghavendra et al., 2019). Studies estimating lost output in a given period used estimates of the prevalence and incidence rates of intimate partner violence based on surveys and their impact on hours worked to gauge lost output. Duvvury et al (2013) estimate the impact on Vietnam, Bangladesh and Uganda. They combine data concerning sectoral employment and output data to estimate the total output loss due to intimate partner violence (IPV). They find that the output loss in 2011 amounted to 1.6 percent of the GDP in Vietnam, 1.28 percent of the GDP in Bangladesh, and 1.27 percent in Uganda. Raghavendra et al. (2019) use data from the 2016 women’s survey across provinces in Ghana. They estimate that absenteeism due to intimate partner violence reduced GDP growth by 0.94 percent in 2017.

Economic empowerment requires financial contemporary and astuteness, financial security and confidence and this are why Kim and Gray (2008) opined that job security and potential, are all jeopardized by an abuser's coercive strategy of maintaining power and control over the victim. Coercive controlling behaviour of the abuser can cripple the victim’s chances of ensuring a secure future, faced with financial and professional barriers. Victims of intimate partner violence are likely to be employed and less likely to receive cash assistance, some become dependent financially, emotionally, physically and otherwise. Women's work productivity becomes impaired, and some frequently come late to work or are absent from work as a result of abuse (Baum, Gatalano& Rand, 2004) cited in (Olojede et al, 2020).

METHODS

Study Design

This study employed a qualitative approach to data collection. Qualitative research is particularly appropriate for a study of this nature as it can give depth and details of phenomena that are difficult to convey with quantitative methods (Flick, 2002). Recruitment of participants for the study was purposive, guided by the information provided by the Sokoto State Ministry of Women Affairs. This is in line with the finding of the spotlight project, managed by Nana Khadijat where it was stated that the Sokoto State Ministry of Women Affairs has on their list over 1000 active survivors of gender based-violence (Spotlight, 2020). The participants (also known as survivors) for the study comprised 40 women aged 15 to 45 years who were living in different rural communities of Sokoto state. These are helpless women who have been victims of different forms of violence: physical, psychological, and sexual from their partners.

Procedure For Data Collection

Before the commencement of the study, permission was sought from the Commissioner for Women's Affairs, who assisted the researchers to identify victims/survivors of intimate partner violence among the women. Thereafter, the participants’ consent was sought and obtained. At first, some of the women were afraid of exposure and reluctant to participate in the study. However, on the assurance that the study was for research purposes only, all the selected participants agreed to take part. They were equally assured of anonymity and confidentiality. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were used for the data collection exercise. The FGD produces descriptive data about people's own written or spoken and observable behaviour. According to Gibbs (1997), a focus group is useful for revealing through interaction, the beliefs, attitudes, experiences and feelings of participants in ways which would not be feasible using other qualitative methods.

Toward the end, four focus group discussions comprises of ten discussants each were held. Each of the focus groups had a social worker, who is a counselling psychologist, present in the sessions providing the needed emotional support to the women. Each discussion lasted for an average of 1 h 20 min and revolved around three major subjects: Causes of Intimate Partner Violence, knowledge about intimate partner violence and likely factors that led to intimate partner violence against women in Sokoto state.

Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive analysis was used for the demographic characteristics of the participants. The transcription of the recorded audio cassettes, together with the recorded field notes, provided data for the thematic analysis. Transcripts were read and annotated. Multiple readings of the transcripts were undertaken to identify major themes or ideas revealed by the group members as well as critical words, phrases and examples. The experiences of the participants were compared and contrasted, searching for patterns either made explicitly by participants or derived implicitly. Important and frequently expressed ideas or themes were then studied for a pattern of connection and grouped into broader categories. The main themes in the data formed a picture that reflected the experiences of all the women in the study

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Survival

1	Sex	Frequency	Percentages
	Male Female	00 40	00% 100%
2	age
	15-25 years 25-35 years 35-45 years	20 15 05	50% 37% 13%
3	Marital status
	Single Married Divorced Widowed	20 02 13 05	50% 5% 33% 12%
4	Religion
	Islam  Christianity		100% 00%
5	Level of study
	Non-formal Edu Primary Edu Sec Edu Tertiary Edu	38 02 00 00	95% 5% 00% 00%
6	Parent Occupation
	Civil Services Business Farming Unemployed	03 07 20 10	8% 17% 50% 25%

Source: Researchers' Computation

The results of the demographic data showed that all of the participants, forty of them representing 100% of the total participants were Muslims and sometimes, all the survivors constituting 100% are women. A greater proportion of respondents, constituting 50% were within the age bracket of 15-25 years, followed by those within the bracket of 25-35 years, constituting 37% and those within the age bracket of 35-45 constituting 13% of the survivals age bracket. Most of the respondents 20 (50%) were single while 13 of the survivors constituting 33% happened to be divorced. 05 of the survivals, constituting 13% are widows and 02 of the survivals constituting 5% were married respectively. Analysis of the occupation of respondents’ parents/ guardians revealed that the majority, 20(.50%) were business persons. Civil servants and unemployed accounting for 9(.17%), 3(8%) and 10(25%) respectively. Most of the respondents 38(95%) had non-formal education, 2 survivals, constituting 5% with primary education, while none of the survivals had either attended secondary or tertiary institutions.

Analysis of Discussions

The Findings of the Study are further discussed

Theme 1: Effect of Intimate Partner Violence on the Socio-Economic Development of Women in Sokoto State

This theme aims to find out if intimate partner violence has any effect on the socio-economic development of the survivors in Sokoto state. From the results, 90% of the women believed that intimate partner violence has a very chronic effect on their socioeconomic development, while only 10% think otherwise. A discussant responded that:

When I was abused sexually, I fall sick for several months and I couldn't go out to sell as usual and which affect my income. I am now a complete liability to my parents and unfortunately, they are too old to struggle for themselves.

Similarly, another discussant states that:

Before now, I work as a cleaner, and the brother of my boss force himself on me. I reported the case to my boss but he didn’t do anything. I quit work and now I am jobless. I couldn't do all I'm doing for myself anymore, and that of my dependents

Another discussant also states that:

I went through trauma and I just want to be alone and isolated from people. I hate to participate in any regular activities because I was raped by those I trusted most

Another discussant also added:

I hate myself for being a victim to the extent that I felt like killing myself. I don’t even take care of myself any longer. I use to think the only option for me is to commit suicide.

When asked about the challenges they pass through because of Intimate Partner Violence, a discussant stated that:

The major challenge we face includes lifetime injury, unwanted pregnancy, and most often sleep disorder. It took me many months before I start sleeping well. The trauma is too bad to bear

However, another discussant talked more aggressively when she stated:

I hate all men, I can't work with a man, and neither can I ever trust them. I was abused by a co-worker, a friend of mine and when I complain to the management, they sack me, saying that I frame him. The most painful of it all is that they refuse to pay me my many months’ salary. I just want to kill him.

Another discussant states that:

The consequences of intimate partner violence will make anyone lose trust, confidence and love. You begin to see every man in the form of a terror.  You will also lose your income if care is not taken. Before now, I use to cater for my family, they depend on me, but now, I hardly go out. I have an injury still battling with. It is a sad experience

Theme 2: Women's Knowledge About Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)

A theme on the knowledge of Intimate Partner Violence was presented to the discussants. In the theme, it was asked if the survivors have an idea of what constitutes IPV. The aim was to find out if the survivors know what is Intimate Partner Violence. Responding to this, a discussant explains:

Before now, most of us don’t have an idea of what constitutes IPV. But as time goes on, and with what many of us went through, we began to get educated on what is intimate partner violence.

Similarly, another discussant stated:

I thought any person that shows us, love, is our intimate partner. I don’t know if they can harm us and that is why some of us use to surrender our all but later be deceived. I later understand what constitutes intimate partner violence after I was abused by my cousin

When asked how they get to know about intimate partner violence, many of the discussants, constituting 80% said they got the information through radio and television. One of the discussants stated:

Every morning I listen to the radio talking about many programmes concerning the sexual abuse of women.

Another discussant states that:

We don’t have a television set in our house, but I have access to the radio through my brother who listens to different programmes every morning. It is through that I learn much about intimate partner violence

Another discussant also said:

I once met with a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) advocating against gender abuse in my locality. They thought me all I know about intimate partner violence

Theme 3: Perceived causes of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in Sokoto State

The discussants were asked if they can identify some of the likely factors causing intimate partner violence within the communities. The perceived causes of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) as reported by the women were unequal power relations (45%), alcohol and drug dependence (73%), jealousy (35%), lack of education and umemployment (57% and 59%). Other causes mentioned by the women included lack of tolerance and patience (45%) and stress and disturbed emotion (35%). One of the discussants remarked:

My husband has this uncanny way of showing his authority over me. As far as he is concerned, l must succumb to his sexual advances all the time without complaint.”

Another added:

I dare not refuse my husband's sex, even when I am sick, he will always force himself on me.

Yet another added:

I would not have minded so much if it is just a case of employing his veto power to force me to have sex with him. What I could no longer stand were the constant beatings that accompanied the sexual abuse. At times I will be so beaten to the point of unconsciousness.

Alcohol and drug dependence also came to the fore as major causes of intimate violence. One discussant reported:

It was becoming a nightmare awaiting my husband’s return. He will always rape and beat me in his drunken stupor

Yet another said:

Drunkenness and sexual abuse had been my lot since I got married to my husband.

On the issue of jealousy, a discussant added:

I never seem to do anything right in the sight of my husband. He was always in the habit of beating and forcing me to have sex with him on the pretext that I had a lover.

Another discussant also states that:

Some men are extremely jealous and highly possessive. Even if the visitor is your blood brother, they will still exhibit that culture of jealousy. Anytime I received a visitor from my family, as far as he is a man after he left, me and my husband will get into a serious fight. He will beat me until I can't move my body. Many women have left him because of that character. He can't stay with any woman

One of the discussants states that:

Lack of education is one of the factors that triggered it. Many of our men are illiterate and uneducated. They don’t even know the consequences of what they are doing. I fear for the future of our children if things continue like this. They are just idle and as we know, an idle mind is a dangerous mind

In a similar vein, another discussant states that:

The level of unemployment is too much. The majority of the community does nothing for a living. Some have reached the level of getting married but due to lack of job or any means that can sustain their livelihood, they become a nuisance to the society

Another discussant buttressing the formal stated that:

This lack of jobs has led to many serious things. Our men are now addicted to drugs thinking it will solve their problem. My experience with my husband is similar to this. Since he lost his job, he has been indulging in drugs and hardly a day he did not transfer his anger to me. Sometimes he will use dangerous weapons against me and the moment he starts, it is as if he has a demon inside him. He will never stop until he injures me.

Another discussant looks at it from the angle of culture and she states:

I think our culture contributed to this problem. Many people in society, including our fathers, have believed that women are men's property and therefore they own them. Some of us that went through hell at the hand of our husbands know what I am saying. The community don’t believe that your husband raped you, after all, he owns you. If he beat you, they will say he is correcting you for wrongdoing. They called us the weaker sex and all sort of names.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this study has confirmed that intimate partner violence is common in the Sokoto state of Nigeria. The self-reported consequences of IPV in this study include sabotage to women's efforts to gain employment, acquire job skills, participate in schooling activities, suicidal ideation and other health problems etc. This finding lends credence to the research findings of Tolman and Rosed (2017), Wilson and Nicolas (2019), and Olojede et all, (2020), who reported that IPV sabotage women’s effort to gain employment and acquire job skills and education thus hindering the opportunity to become self-reliant. The discussants also revealed that societal culture, jealousy, lack of education, unemployment, and alcohol among other things are perceived factors that usually caused IPV. This also lends credence to the study conducted by KPMG (2014), UN Women (2017) and Narayana et al (2020) where they all affirmed that IPV is culturally promoted in most communities which promotes the primacy of men over women. The sexual abuse reported by participants in this study is consistent with previous studies in Nigeria and elsewhere (Odimegwu, 1997; Gottman and Jacobson, 1998; Okemgbo, 2000; Adidu, 2001; Bhowon and Munbauhal, 2005; Fatusi and Alatise, 2006; Donald and Mahlatji, 2006; Naaeke, 2006).Toward this end, it is recommended that government should provide women, who experience violence with multi-disciplinary services including counselling and other resources that they need for full recovery and integration in their communities, legal support (including provision for compensation) and to ensure that perpetrators are brought to justice and later rehabilitation. In addition, men should be educated from infancy on the concept of manhood and their supportive and protective roles in the family as a means of eradicating all forms of intimate partner violence against women. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) should champion this public-based campaign to eradicate/eliminate gender-based violence against women in our society. And finally, the culprit should be dealt with to show a deterrent to others.

 

 

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