Contrastive
Analysis of Verb and Pronoun: Evidence of French and Hausa
Khadijah Ashiru-Abdulrahman (PhD)
Department of Linguistics and African Languages
University of Abuja,
Nigeria
ashkhadfol@gmail.com or khadijah.ashiru-abdulrahman@uniabuja.edu.ng
+2348128151518
Abstract
In essence, translation is the act of conveying a written
text from one language (source language) into another (target language) without
jeopardizing the meaning. However, mistranslation has become very common and
problematic in the process of passing a message from one language into another
especially when it involves languages belonging to different structures and
systems like the Hausa and French. Many a language, unlike French, do not
conjugate their verbs and have no such verb known as the auxiliary verb. There
may be similarities in gender affiliations but may not accord it to objects.
Pronouns may remain the same in the French language without giving much
attention to tenses but differ in the Hausa language. Based on these
differences and similarities, this paper critically analyses and evaluates
where French and Hausa languages meet and where they differ using the theory of
Robert Lado (1957) in comparing the grammar of both languages.
Keywords: French language,
Mistranslation, Translation, Hausa language, contrastive analysis
Introduction
Problematic
Many translators are
not well-informed or proficient in both languages, which has resulted in
mistranslations. And the rate of these mistranslations from the translation of
French to Hausa and vice versa is a problem that needs urgent intervention. To
discontinue this translation incompetence that is distorting the standard of
the Hausa-translated text from French, this study is imperative to regulate
this menace.
Significance
This work will benefit translators, especially the French/Hausa
translation as a work to consult when working on both languages. It is a
linguistic analysis of two languages; as such, it will benefit students of
applied linguistics. The contrastive analysis of Hausa and French in this
aspect has provided the unique features of both languages, their differences
and how they are related to one another
Literature Review
The problem of mistranslation has
been a hot topic in the fields of linguistics and translation studies. Many
high-profile cases of mistranslation have made headlines in recent years,
including a famous mistranslation of the Bible that led to the incorrect
translation of the word “virgin” into “young woman”. Mistranslation can have
serious consequences, from the miscommunication of important information to the
perpetuation of stereotypes and prejudices. Douglas Hofstadter (1997) in his
book “Le Ton Beau de Marot: In Praise of the Music of Language” explores the
art of translation through the lens of a 16th-century French poem
“Le Songe du vieil Pelerin” by Clément Marot. He argues that a true translation
should not only be literal but should also capture the essence and rhythm of
the original text. He pointed out that mistranslation can often be a result of
a failure to understand the nuance of language and culture. A literal
translation of a text can miss the underlying meaning and intent of the
original author when the translator does not adopt a more holistic approach to
translation that takes into account the context and culture of the source text.
Lawrence Venti (1988) developed a theory of “foreignization” and
“domestication” in translation. He challenged the prevailing view of
translation as a transparent process, arguing that the translator’s role should
be visible and acknowledged, rather than hidden or invisible.
Also (1995) in his book “The
Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation”, stated that
mistranslation is often the result of a desire to domesticate the foreign text,
rather than preserve its original meaning and context. According to Gregory
Rabassa (2005), mistranslation can often result from the translator’s lack of
knowledge of or understanding of the source text and culture. Rabassa also
highlights the challenges of translating works from other cultures and
languages and emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural and
historical context of the source text. To solve the msitranslation problem
Robert Lado (1957) in his book proposed the contrastive analysis hypothesis,
which suggests that learners’ errors in a second language can be predicted by
comparing and contrasting the two languages. By comparing French and Hausa, we
are likely to know the similarities and differences (from the orthography to
the word order). This analysis is needed to help understand the structure of
both languages to minimize mistranslation.
Theoretical Framework
The theories of
contrastive linguistics also known as differential linguistics that seeks to
describe the differences and similarities between a pair of languages is our
approach. This approach has been proposed by Robert Lado (1950) to assist
interlingual transfer in the process of translating text from one language into
another. While using the parallel-text analysis, the contrastive description
can occur at every level of linguistic structure: speech sounds (phonology),
written symbols (orthography), word formation (Morphology), word meaning
(lexicology), collocation (phraseology), and sentence structure (syntax and
complete discourse (textology). Various techniques used in corpus linguistics are
relevant in interlingual and intralingual contrastive studies.
French Language
French is a romance language
spoken by over 200 million people in over 30 countries Stephen Murray(2006). It
is the official language of France, Switzerland, and Monaco, and it is also the
official language of Canada, Belgium, and Luxembourg. It is one of the most
beautiful and a melodic language in the world and it is known for its complex
grammar and rich vocabulary. According to lexicographer and linguist Herald
Hammarströn (2013), who analysed the size of dictionaries in different
languages, french has the largest dictionary with over 150,000 words. French is
a moderately inflected language with about 23 consonant sounds like:
Table 1: French Consonant sounds
Consonants |
Place of the sound |
/b/ |
Bébé |
/c/ |
Cycle |
/d/ |
Devoir |
/f/ |
Frère |
/g/ |
Gateau |
/h/ |
Haricot |
/ʒ/ |
Jambe |
/k/ |
Klaxon, Sac |
/l/ |
Lumière |
/m/ |
Matelas |
/n/ |
Noir |
/ᶮ/ |
Pagne |
/p/ |
Pantalon |
/q/ |
Quel |
/r/ |
Farine |
/s/ |
Samedi |
/ ʃ/ |
Chapeau |
/t/ |
Ordinateur |
/v/ |
Valise |
/z/ |
Zambeze, xenophobe |
|
|
French
vowel sounds appear in three formats – the oral vowels, nasal and semi-vowels.
Under the oral vowels, there are two ligatures - œ and æ which are often
interchanged with oe and ae in the area where the actual symbol isn’t present
but it is nonstandard.
Table
II: French vowel sounds
Oral
vowels |
Nasal
vowels |
Semi-vowels |
/a/ |
/ã/ |
/ɥ/ |
/i/ |
/õ/ |
/j/ |
/œ/ |
/ɛ͂/ |
/w/ |
/æ/ |
/œ͂/ |
|
/u/ |
|
|
/y/ |
|
|
/ɔ/ |
|
|
/e/ |
|
|
/ə/ |
|
|
/ø/ |
|
|
/o/ |
|
|
/ ɛ/ |
|
|
Hausa Language
Hausa is a West African language spoken by over 40 million
people in Nigeria, Niger, and other parts of West Africa. Hausa falls under the
Afro-asiatic language family and is one of the most widely spoken languages in
Africa and; also the most widely spoken language in Nigeria after English
Ethnologue (2017) As a tonal language, it comprises five (5) vowels which
include low tone, high tone and falling tone. The tone is not marked when
writing a standardized Hausa. There are varieties of Hausa dialect known as the
Arewaci such as Sakkwatanci, Katsinanci, Zanhwaranci,
Kurhwayanci spoken in northwest Nigeria like Sokoto, Katsina, Kebbi,
Zamfara. According to Bernard, the Sakkwatanci
is used in Hausa literature and is the classical Hausa (Bernard 2011). There
are also Zazzaganci, Dauranci, Bausanci,
Gudduranci, and Hadejanci spoken also in Northern Nigeria. The Dauranci
and the Kananci dialects are the
standardized Hausa spoken and written Hausa. National and internal broadcasts
are done in Kananci/Dauranci. (onnaedo
2021). Hausa has about 25 consonants including glottalic consonants (implosives
and ejectives). They are denoted with an apostrophe or written in the form of a
Latin-modified pattern. The Hausa consonants are shown in the table below
Table III: Baƙi (Hausa consonant sounds)
Bb |
/b/ |
Baya |
Ɓƃ |
/ƃ/ |
Ƃera |
Cc |
/tʃ/ |
Cincirindo |
Dd |
/d/ |
Dogo |
Ɗ ɗ |
/ɗ/ |
ɗaure |
Ff |
/ɸ/ |
hiilii/ huskaa |
FY fy |
/fy/ |
Fyaaɗe / fyaacee |
Gg |
/g/ |
Gajere |
GWgw |
/ģw/ |
Gwandaa/
Gwargwadoo |
GY gy |
/gy/ |
Gyaaraa/
gyandamaa |
Hh |
/h/ |
Hausa |
Jj |
/(d)ʒ/ |
Jaakii/ Juuma’a |
Kk |
/k/ |
Kaddaraa |
Ƙ ƙ |
/ƙ/ |
Ƙauna/ Ƙarshe |
KW ƙw |
/ ƙw/ |
Ƙwarai/ ƙwaaroo |
KY ky |
/ky/ |
Ƙyandaa/ ƙyalle |
Ll |
/l/ |
Labarii |
Mm |
/m/ |
Mace |
Nn |
/n/ |
Nomaa |
Rr |
/r/ |
Raino |
Ss |
/s/ |
Sarki/
Sarauta |
SH sh |
/ʃ/ |
Shiga/
sharaa |
Tt |
/t/ |
Taimako |
TS ts |
/tś/ |
Tsintuwa/
Tseefee |
Ww |
/w/ |
Wurii/
wukaa |
Yy |
/y/ |
Yaa/yan |
Zz |
/z/ |
Zaunaa |
The
variations of consonants like /ɓ/[b’], /ɗ/[d’],/ ƙ/[k’], /ƴ/[y’], [ts’], [gw], [gy] /tʃ/ are peculiar with Hausa language and
hold no similarities with the French language. The vowel sound is ( 5) five.
Table
IV: Wasula (Hausa Vowel sounds)
/a/ |
/i/ |
/e/ |
/o/ |
/u/ |
This
is different from what we have in the French language. French vowel sounds are
divided into (3) three. The oral vowels, the nasal vowels and the semi-vowel
sounds.
Language Structure
In general, language structure refers to the basic components and rules
that make up a language. These include things like grammar, word order,
vocabulary, and phonology (the sounds of the language). Every language has its
unique structure, but there are also some common features that many languages
share. For example, most languages have nouns, verbs, and adjectives and they
use grammar to express things like tense and aspect. Some languages also have
complex features like agreement, case, and mood.
French Language Structure
French like most romance languages, has a relatively simple grammar
structure. It has nouns, adjectives, and verbs and uses prepositions to
indicate relationships between words. French Nouns have gender and number, and adjectives
agree with nouns in gender and number. It also has a complex system of verb
conjugation, with different endings for different tenses, moods and persons. French grammar prioritizes the set of rules that govern how
to create statements, questions and commands.
In many respects, French has similar features to other romance
languages. Such as the use of tonal marks, articles, gender consciousness and the
creation of new tenses from auxiliaries such as the Verb ‘Ȇtre’, ‘Avoir’ Aller.
Like other languages belonging to a same family
group, modern French language word order
is ‘SVO’ although it allows fewer word orders like the old French which has six
potential word orders such as ‘VOS, SVO, OSV, SOV,OVS, VSO’.
The parts of speech
The French language has nine parts of speech, also
known as lexical categories or word classes.
i.
Adjective
ii.
Adverb
iii.
Article
iv.
Conjunction
v.
Interjection
vi.
Noun
vii.
Preposition
viii.
Pronoun
ix.
Verb
Hausa Language Structure
Hausa like the French language has (8) eight parts of
speech not including Article. Article in most Hausa grammar comes in the form
of a pronoun. For example:
Akram
(Subject) (Noun) ya (Pronoun) sha( Verb) fura ( object)(Noun)
As shown above, Hausa is an SVO word order and does not work
in another form of VOS, OVS, and SOV orders. According to the book Darussan
Hausa 2 (2001): Akwai azuzuwa na kalmomi masu yawa a hausa. Kowace kalma
akwai ta a wani aji na musamman wanda ta faɗa ciki”. It uses a variety of particles and affixes to indicate
tense, aspect and other grammatical information.
The parts of speech are:
i.
Suna
Nom
ii.
Wakilin
suna Pronom
iii.
Aikatau Verbe
iv.
Nunau Préposition
v.
Motsin
rai Adjonction
vi.
Bayanau
Adverbe
vii.
Siffatau Adjectif
viii.
Mahada Conjunction
Similarities and differences
Hausa and French have some similarities and some
differences in their language structures.
Table V: Similarities and Differences in Language Structure
Column A ( French) |
Column B ( Hausa) |
Nouns, Verbs, adjectives, prepositions |
Nouns, Verbs, adjectives, prepositions |
Articles |
No articles |
Various word order SVO (subject, verb,
object) VOS (Verb, Object,
subject), OSV (Object, subject, Verb) SOV (Subject, object verb), OVS (Object
verb subject), VSO (Verb, subject-object)’. |
Only one-word order
SVO(subject, verb, object) |
Has no system of honorifics |
Has a complex system of honorifics |
Inflected language |
Inflected language |
Gender and number |
Gender and number etc. |
Verbs and Pronouns in French
French verb is like a two-edged object that utilises
patterns. The first pattern is the infinite mood and the second is the
conjugated mood. Every French verb
comes in an infinitive mood before it will be conjugated for use in a sentence/
statement. While the conjugated pattern is important in present active tenses,
it can also capture a verb in its infinitive mood (as a second verb in a
sentence). We have discussed above on gender consciousness, that is to say,
gender rule influences verbs as well as numbers (singular and plural form).
Pronoun like the conjugation of every verb comes in singular and plural forms
(The 1st person singular, 2nd to 3rd person
singular and the 1st person plural, 2nd and 3rd
person plural). Like singular and plural forms, a pronoun is also influenced by
gender rule (Masculine or feminine).
Verbs in French are conjugated to reflect the
following information
a. voice ( active and passive tense )
b. Reflexive
c. feature ( perfect features and imperfect
features)
d. tense ( Present, past and future )
e. indicative, imperative, subjunctive,
conditional, infinitive or gerundive tenses
Verbs in French are in infinitive mood different from
what is applicable in the Hausa language.
It will then be conjugated to agree with the subject (Person) to create
a place for the first person, second person, and third person in singular as
well as the plural where you have first, second and third person plural for a
present active tenses. For example, the
conjugation of the verb “parler”
Table VI: French Verb and pronoun in present tense
|
Pronoun |
Verb -Parler |
First Person Singular |
Je |
Parle |
Second Person Singular |
Tu |
parles |
Third Person Singular (Masculine) |
Il |
parle |
Third Person Singular
(Feminine) |
Elle |
parle |
First Person Plural |
Nous |
parlons |
Second Person Plural |
Vous |
parlez |
Third Person Plural
(Masculine) |
Ils |
Parlent |
Third-person plural (Feminine) |
Elles |
parent |
French unlike Hausa is neither a null-subject nor a
pro-drop language.
To construct a sentence involving reflexive verbs,
past tenses (passé composé, passé historique, plus que parfait etc) auxiliary
verbs “Avoir” or Ȇtre” is usually combined
with the past participles of main verbs. For future tenses like (future proche)
the verb “aller” is used combined with the main verb and for regular
future tense it is conjugated in simple future tense.
Table
VII: (French Verb and pronoun in a past tense format Using Verb Avoir
|
Pronoun |
Past tense auxiliary (Avoir) |
Verb Manger |
First Person Singular |
J’ |
ai |
Mangé |
Second Person Singular |
Tu |
as |
Mangé |
Third Person Singular (Masculine) |
Il |
a |
Mangé |
Third
Person Singular (Feminine) |
Elle |
a |
Mangé |
First
Person Plural |
Nous |
Avons |
Mangé |
Second
Person Plural |
Vous |
Avez |
Mangé |
Third
Person Plural (Masculine) |
Ils |
Ont |
Mangé |
Third person plural (Feminine) |
Elles |
Ont |
Mangé |
Table
VIII: Passe composé of the verb « Aller » with the auxiliary
verb ‘Ȇtre’
|
Pronoun |
Past tense auxiliary (Ȇtre) |
Verb Aller |
First Person Singular |
Je |
Suis |
Allé |
Second Person Singular |
Tu |
Es |
Allé |
Third Person Singular (Masculine) |
il |
Est |
Allé |
Third
Person Singular (Feminine) |
elle |
Est |
Allée |
First
Person Plural |
nous |
Sommes |
Allés |
Second
Person Plural |
vous |
Etes |
Allés |
Third
Person Plural (Masculine) |
ils |
Sont |
Allés |
Third person plural (Feminine) |
Elles |
Sont |
Allées |
To produce future tense (future proche) in French,
the verb “Aller” is used
Example:
Table
IX: Future tenses using the Verb “Aller”
|
Pronoun |
Past tense auxiliary (Aller) |
Verb- Réussir |
First Person Singular |
Je |
Vais |
Réussir |
Second Person Singular |
Tu |
Vas |
Réussir |
Third Person Singular (Masculine) |
Il |
Va |
réussir |
Third Person Singular (Feminine) |
Elle |
Va |
Réussir |
First Person Plural |
Nous |
allons |
Réussir |
Second Person Plural |
Vous |
Allez |
Réussir |
Third Person Plural (Masculine) |
Ils |
Vont |
Réussir |
Third person plural (Feminine) |
Elles |
Vont |
Réussir |
The imperative mood, which only has first-person
plural and second-person singular and plural forms, usually has forms similar
or identical to the corresponding ones in the present indicative.
Hausa Pronouns
(Wakilin Suna) and Verbs (Aikatau)
Wakilin Suna (Pronouns)
In Hausa
language, whether the subject of a sentence is expressed in a previous sentence
or not, a pronoun must accompany every verb in Hausa language. This marks
pronoun differences in Hausa and French.
Table X: Pronouns in
perfect tenses and verbs
|
Relatives
|
Negatives
|
Verb – Zauna
|
Indefinite
|
Akà
|
bà’à ... ba
|
Zauna
|
1st person
singular
|
Na
|
bàn ... ba
|
Zauna
|
2nd person
singular
|
Ka (masculine)
Kikà (feminine)
|
bàkà ... ba(Masculine)
bàkì ... ba(Feminine)
|
Zauna
|
3rd person
singular
|
ya (Masculine)
Ta (feminine)
|
bài ... ba(Masculine)
bàtà ... ba(Feminine)
|
Zauna
|
1st person
plural
|
Mukà
|
bàmù ... ba
|
Zauna
|
2nd person
plural
|
kukà
|
bàkù ... ba
|
Zauna
|
3rd person
plural
|
sukà
|
bàsù ... ba
|
Zauna
|
Continuous
tense in Pronoun
Continuous tense in Hausa Verb: Hausa verb in
continuous tense is conjugated adding ya or wa
For
example the verb Tafii
Table XI:
Continuous tenses in Pronoun and Verb
|
Relatives |
Negatives |
Possessive
negatives |
Verb -Tafii |
Indefinite |
akèː |
baː àː |
bâː a |
Tafiya |
1st
person singular |
nakèː / nikèː |
baː nàː |
bâː ni |
Tafiya |
2nd
person singular |
kakèː(Masculine) kikèː(Feminine) |
baː kàː(Masculine) baː kjàː(Feminine) |
bâː ka(Masculiine) bâː ki(Feminine) |
Tafiya |
3rd
person singular |
jakèː / ʃikèː(Masculine) takèː (Feminine) |
baː jàː(Masculine) baː tàː(Feminine) |
bâː ʃi(Masculine) bâː ta(Feminine) |
Tafiya |
1st
person plural |
mukèː |
baː màː |
bâː mu |
Tafiya |
2nd
person plural |
kukèː |
baː kwàː |
bâː ku |
Tafiya |
3rd
person plural |
sukèː |
baː sàː |
bâː su |
Tafiya |
Future
Tenses Pronoun:
Verb
– Tashii
In
future tenses, nothing is added to the verb. It remains the same and not
conjugated like what we have in the French language.
Table
XII: Future Tenses Pronoun and Verb (Negation)
|
Negatives |
Tashii |
Indefinite |
zaː à |
Tashii |
1st
person singular |
bà/bàː zân ... ba / |
Tashii |
2nd
person singular |
bà/bàː zaː kà ... ba (Masc) bà/bàː zaː kì ... ba (Fem) |
Tashii |
3rd
person singular |
bà/bàː zâi ...ba / bà/bàː zaː tà ... ba (Fem) |
Tashii |
1st
person plural |
bà/bàː zaː mù ... ba |
Tashii |
2nd
person plural |
bà/bàː zaː kù ... ba |
Tashii |
3rd
person plural |
bà/bàː zaː sù ... ba |
Tashii |
Similarities and Differences of Pronoun and Verbs in French
and Hausa
For Pronouns, the
main similarity between French and Hausa pronouns is that both languages
distinguish between singular and plural pronouns. However, there are also some
differences. In French, there are three grammatical genders for pronouns
(Masculine il/lui/son, Feminine elle/sa, Neuter pronouns celui,ce/ceux) all of
which agree in gender and number with the noun,
while Hausa has only two (Masculine/Feminine). French also has a formal
and informal “you” (tu/ ka/ ke and Vous ka/ke) pronoun, while Hausa use the
“you” (Ku/ Vous)- for the plural and it is also applicable in French
Hausa and French
verbs share some similarities and some differences. Both languages have a
conjugation system that indicates tense, person, and number. However, the way
those verbs are conjugated is different in each language. For example, Hausa
verbs are conjugated by adding suffixes to the stem, while French verbs are
conjugated by changing the endings of the verb.
In terms of
similarity, French and Hausa verbs can either be transitive or intransitive.
When it requires an object to complete its meaning –it is transitive. For
example “to eat” (Manger and ci) requires an object such as (des Pommes/
abinci). When it does not require an object to complete its meaning, it is
intransitive. For example, the verb “to stand” (se lever/ Tashi) is
intransitive, because it does not require an object. It should be noted that
many Hausa verbs can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on how they
are used in a sentence.
Conclusion
Although
translation is simply encoding and decoding from one language into another
language yet it involves the ability to understand the phonological systems
that govern how symbols are used to form sequences known as words or morphemes
in both languages; not neglecting the differences in language form as well as
the structure. The contrastive analysis
of French and Hausa languages reveals some interesting similarities and
differences. Both languages use grammatical gender but in different ways. While
both languages have many similarities, the differences between them highlight
the unique characteristics of each language. Understanding these differences
can help in learning and understanding how best to translate into/from Hausa
and French. Also beyond the comparison of grammatical structures, it is
interesting to look at how these languages are used in everyday life. For
example, French is a Romance language, and its pronunciation and grammar are
heavily influenced by Latin. Hausa, on the other hand, is an Afro-Asiatic
language with a very different grammatical structure. Hausa is also spoken in
many different dialects, and these dialects can vary significantly in terms of
pronunciation and grammar. Linguistic diversity is a key feature of the Hausa
language.
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HAUSA: Kuna iya rubuto mana tsokaci ko tambayoyi a ƙasa. Tsokacinku game da abubuwan da muke ɗorawa shi zai tabbatar mana cewa mutane suna amfana da wannan ƙoƙari da muke yi na tattaro muku ɗimbin ilimummuka a wannan kafar intanet.