Citation: Umar Muhammad Jabbi & Yahaya Idris (2024). Echoes of Resistance to European Cultural Domination in Hausa Poetry: A Historical Reconnaisance. Glob Acad J Linguist Lit; Vol-6, Iss-4 pp-169-174.
Echoes of Resistance to European Cultural Domination in Hausa Poetry: A Historical Reconnaisance
Umar Muhammad Jabbi
(PhD)
Department of History
Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto
08039273172
&
Yahaya Idris (PhD)
Department of
Nigerian Languages
Usmanu Danfodiyo
University, Sokoto
07038890270
Abstract
The Hausa people of
Northern Nigeria, along with the other populations inhabiting the Nigerian
area, were conquered and subjugated by British colonial forces. Scholars have
proposed various reasons to explain why Europeans succeeded in defeating
African societies militarily. In the Hausa regions of Northern Nigeria, the
people sustained their resistance through non-military means. The intellectual
tradition left by the Sokoto Jihadist leaders, particularly the use of poetry
to disseminate information among the populace, was utilized. Various methods
were employed to collect the necessary instruments for this paper. Manuscripts
were obtained from the Waziri Junaidu History and Culture Bureau, Sokoto, as
well as extracts from some resistance poems. These poems were composed to
attack and dismiss various aspects of European culture as un-Islamic and
unacceptable to a Muslim community like the one in Northern Nigeria. The banner
of the "jihad of the pen" was raised to condemn anything European as
heretical, leading those who subscribed to it toward hellfire in the hereafter.
This paper highlights how Hausa poetry was directed toward condemning European
cultural values, their romanticized education (Boko), and European cultural
domination, which was a key factor in achieving successful political and
economic domination.
Keywords: Hausa People,
Jihad, Culture, Poetry, Education
1.0 Introduction
Traditionally, the
main purpose of Hausa poets since the jihad period was to enlighten the people,
explain the basic principles of Islam, and preach against what was considered
evil and anti-Islam. The poets were learned and had a clear understanding of the
challenges before them in educating the public on the proper practice of Islam
and the dangers of deviating from its teachings. To the 20th-century poets of
Hausaland, Western colonialism was the greatest evil that had ever befallen
society and needed to be confronted head-on. Noting that the Europeans
possessed superior fighting equipment, Hausa scholars resorted to using their
pens to confront the challenge. The pen, it is said, is mightier than the
sword. They used poetry to attack various facets of the European project in
Hausaland. Through poetic expression, they attacked the system and tried to
convince people to keep away from it. The scholars of that time did not relent
in their attack on Western culture. The jihad of the pen was waged by the poets
where the jihad of the sword had failed.
As rightly observed
by Hiskett (1975:92), literate poetry of Hausaland conformed to an Islamic
pattern. Since literacy in Hausaland was a direct result of Islam, those who
composed the poems were already conditioned to an Islamic view of life. The
Hausa reaction to the British occupation was complex. Hausa society viewed the
events of c. 1900 at several different levels. First, they were simply steps on
the way to the final apocalyptic climax, “sign of the hour.” Second, when this
final catastrophe failed to materialize immediately, they were seen as part of
all the other tensions and clashes of interest that already made up the pattern
of Hausa relations with intruders.
The Muslims, who are
the majority in Hausaland, rejected the European system of education and
culture. For the Hausa poets of protest, the entire concept of ‘Western
education’ was seen as mere biri-boko, a whitewash and empty endeavor, as it
did not promote spiritual growth or add value to life in the Hereafter. Even
the style of writing associated with this type of education, which moves from
left to right instead of right to left as in Arabic, was regarded as a symbol
of the emptiness of the ways of the white colonialists. In fact, the entire
culture of the intruders was portrayed as evil to be completely rejected. It
was in this vein that Shehu Shagari, in 1947, in his song titled Waƙar Bature (Ingilishi), opined that:
Don wajibina gun Musulmi duk shi fal-
lasa kafiri, har dai Bature, don shi
It is indeed
obligatory upon all Muslims to
Expose the evil of
the infidel, especially the European, the one
Ban sonsa ban ƙaunarsa ban komi da
shi,
Ba don rashin ƙarfi ba sai in kar
shi
I neither like him
nor have anything to do with him
If not for my
weakness, I would have finished him
Don ja’irina, kafiri kuma makiri
Ga halinsa kwas san shi bai ƙaunarshi
Because he (the
European) is stupid, infidel and malicious
Whoever knows his
habits will hate him
(Shehu Shagari: Waƙar Baturen Inglishi)
The following
sub-sections represent a highlight on the condemnations of various practices
that appear to have some relation with European colonialist culture.
2.1
Resistance to Western Education
The Muslim
communities, who are the majority in Hausaland, vehemently resisted the Western
system of education. They believed that Western education deliberately refused
to recognize the cultural and religious values of the society within which it
operated. The Muslims rejected the European system of education and culture,
expressing a common stance that whoever identified with any aspect of
Euro/Christian culture was either a non-Muslim or had committed a grave sin,
and must repent before being fully accepted into the fold. Scholar-poets
expressed hatred and condemned all aspects and levels of Western education.
This was especially so because Christian missionaries viewed Western education
as a vehicle for converting the colonized into Christianity. They understood
that the colonialists wanted to destroy the bridge linking the Muslims with
their glorious past. They believed that if the Muslims accepted the European
form of writing, the Arabic language, and consequently the Islamic religion,
would be adversely affected. The colonialists intensified literacy campaigns
and labeled anyone who could not read or write in English as illiterate, even
if that person was a prolific writer in Arabic.
The majority of Hausa
people, who were mostly Muslims, adopted ways to resist Western education and
some Western cultural practices introduced into their society in an attempt to
safeguard their religion (Junaidu 1990:239). In Hausaland, Western education
was considered useless because it had no benefit in the hereafter. People
further detested the Western style of writing, as it starts from left to right,
which was very strange to a society accustomed to the Arabic writing style,
which begins from the right and moves to the left (Tsiga 2014:8).
The introduction of
Western education in Northern Nigeria created a condition of mistrust, as
people believed that the missionaries inserted sections of the Bible into the
curriculum of instruction in their schools, leading to fierce resistance (Inuwa
1987:2). Many people refused to send their children to Western schools because
they did not believe that the Europeans, who were considered their enemies,
could offer anything good (Tibendarana 1988:263).
Scholars,
particularly poets, expressed their views through poetry about Western
education. They waged a war against Western education and anything that
appeared to have originated from contact with Europeans.
In line with this,
Abubakar Maikaturu, a poet in 1940s Hausaland, opined that:
Hausas su kwas san ta ya halaka,
Daidai da mai ƙirat ɗan mabuɗi.
Anybody who learns
their language (English) has gone astray,
He is akin to the one
who fabricates padlock keys
Hausa don Allah ka yo irin taku,
Naka halshe don kak ka juye shi.
Learn your own
language,
Don’t distrust your
own language anywhere anyhow.
(Abubakar Maikaturu: Waƙar Gudun Duniya)
Enrollement of
children into western style schools in those days was seen as efforts at baptising
the children into Christianity. A poet Haliru Wurno in his criticism of western
schhol education pointrd out that:
Wajen ilimi a can ne
yay yi tushe,
Kujerin ‘yan maza a
haɗe da mata.
In western type of
schools, it originates
Likewise mixing of
seat between boys and girls is common.
A ce wai diskashin
ake yi tsakani,
Ga al’adarmu sam haka
ba irinta.
To pretend
they are doing discussion
An
issue that’s never accepted in our culture
(Haliru Wurno: Waƙar Muhimmancin
Al’adunmu da Haɗarin Rungumar na
Waje)
Resisting
Western education did not stop at the introduction of this system of education.
Even today, when Western education is widespread and most people have realized
its benefits, some poets continue to voice their disdain for it. A poet named
Auwal Anwar, as late as 1987, composed a poem titled Ƙaramin Sani, condemning the
various stages of attainment in Western education as follows:
Digirin banza digirin wofi,
Iliminmu da ba shi da ɗan tofi.
A
useless and bastard degree,
A
knowledge that has no value.
Digirinmu na labari soko,
Ilimin ga na tulu ba rafi.
A
degree of mere talking,
A
knowledge that has no benefit.
Digirinmu na zance ratata,
Ilimin wauta na ganin ka fi.
A
degree of mere talking,
A
knowledge of mere feeling pompous.
Ilimin ga a don shi kar ka tsaya,
Ilimin da kana tsaye sai ya tafi.
A
knowledge that you should not depend,
Becouse depending on
it is baseless
Ilimin fitina, ilimin wasa,
Ilimin a yi shewa ai tafi.
A
knowledge of play and crises
A
knowledge that is mere lapping and go away.
(Auwal Anwar: Waƙar Ƙaramin Sani)
In condemning western
education poet Auwal Anwar describe it as a play, he further stress that
western education has no any benefits hence it is useless where he said:
Ilimin a ci daɗi ai galla,
Ilimin ga na ƙarfafa ‘yan wofi.
A
knowledge that’s prioritise enjoyment and,
A
knowledge that empower bastard,
Ilimin gaye na shiga mota,
Na kiran mata a ga ɗan tofi.
A
knowledge of fancy of driving motor.
A way of moving with girls in order to get
them.
Ilimin ga na tushen iskanci,
Ilimin banza ilimin wofi.
A
knowledge that breads immorality
A bastard and useless knowledge.
(Auwal Anwar: Waƙar Ƙaramin Sani)
He further buttresses
his criticisms on western education because according to him it leads people to
develop unwarranted behavior that’s why he said:
Digirinmu na farko
har na biyu,
Na ukunsu na ‘Dokta’
cin zarafi.
First
degree and second degree,
The
third degree, PhD an insult.
A saman na ukun aka
sa ‘Reader’,
Mai ridar ‘ya’ya ɗan wofi.
Next to
Ph, D is Reader,
A
reader who deceived childrens a stupid.
A wuce ‘reader’ har
Farfesa,
Mai feso ƙarya sha-ka-tafi.
After
Reader there is Professor,
A
useless broadcaster of of lies.
Digirinmu na zagin
jahilci,
Tsananin jahilci shi
muka fi.
The
Degree of condemning of condemning ignorance,
Ignorance
is our priority.
(Auwal Anwar: Waƙar Ƙaramin Sani)
The poet passes a
curse on all levels of educational attainment gotten by people through western
education. He describes it as a way of increasing illiteracy, idiocy and
stupidity.
2.1 Resistance to European Cloths
Clothes are elements
of a people's culture, worn on the body, such as shirts, trousers, and dresses.
It is well known that the style of dressing used by Western people and that of
the native Africans are two entirely different things. The colonialist style of
dressing did not escape the sharp tongues of Hausa poets, who were mostly
Muslims.
Abubakar Maikaturu
was particularly uncompromising in his criticism of European culture.
Condemning the type of clothes worn by Western people who came to Hausaland, he
composed many poems, among which the poem titled “Gudun Duniya” is quite
popular. In this poem, he condemned all the types of clothes used by Europeans,
especially those copied by the Hausa people. He stressed that wearing short
trousers is prohibited because they cannot be used for prayer since they do not
properly cover the lower part of the body. The poet considers short trousers
appropriate for children, not adults, as used by the Europeans. He did not stop
at condemning short trousers; he also criticized the use of face caps and tight
clothing. He cautioned Muslims against the use of covered shoes and dusting
powder, stating:
Kayansu in kassa don ka kula
In kai dubun Sallah gonga wala
Their cloths,
whichever you wear,
If you pray a
thousand timesIt is ineffective
Wandon ga dan guntu shi da tsala,
Kwas sa shi kafirci yai makurɗi.
The
short trouser and the tight pairs of long trouser
Whosoever
wear it has giving in to unbelief
Taggwon da yay liƙe yab
bi jiki,
Kai ar maƙi Allah ka bi kuɗɗi.
Those
cloths that tight with body,
You
hate the Almighty because of money.
Fulla ta Akawu ne kowane na,
Yas sa ta ran tashi sai makoɗi.
The
facing cap weared by clerks,
Whoever, wear it will be subjected to torture
on the resuruction day.
Sos kwandiras bata shoti kwala,
Kwas sa su kafirci ya yi faɗi.
Socks,
cover shoe and shirts,
Wearing
them puts one to unbelief
Kaki da hwanjama kowane na,
Yas sa su yai salla ya yi kauɗi.
Whosoever
wears Khaki and Pyjamas
Using them to pray is violating the rules (Shari’a).
Tawul bulu hoda kak ka yi su,
Don gobe sai nari am majidi.
Do not
keep a towel use the washing (blue) powder,
For
fear that one ends in Hell fire.
(Abubakar
Maikaturu: Waƙar Gudun Duniya)
Before
the coming of the Europeans into Hausaland, the Hausa people have their way of
making clothes. The social relationship between Hausa people and other ethnic
groups that have embraced the European cultutre brought about changes in terms
of making and using of clothes. Hausa people started to adopt the use of short
trousers and other type of western style of clothes. It is as a result of this
that a Hausa poet known as Maharazu Barmo Kware composed a poem condemning this
attitude of adopting the western style type of clothes he said:
Tabbas sigari buɗus da rediyo ya aza,
Da tsala da dan taggo irin na Nasara.
Indeed,
smoking cigarrete and listening to radio
The
putting on tight trousers and a small tight shirt of the Europeans
Shi malami ya sa tufafin bariki,
Ga batun gwadin iko shi kan fi Nasara.
(Waƙar Maharazu Barmu
Kwasare ta AnNasara)
Malam
who wear modern dressing,
When
exercising power pass infidel
(Abubakar
Maikaturu: Waƙar Gudun Duniya)
In a similar vein Alƙali Haliru Wurno
condemned those who patronize European mode of dressing to the detriment of the
indigenous ones. He retort:
Su sai musu ‘yan tufafi ‘yan matsattsi,
A tanke tsara da bel tamkar ta Biri ta.
They
bought them small and tight clothes,
Stocking the waist with belt a kin to that of
the monkey.
A sa fes kap baƙar
hulla a sanya,
Abar zancen ta saka wa ka son ta.
They
put on a facing cap and black cap,
They
threw away the locally knitted cap
Idan an shafa mai kai na ta ƙyalli,
A sanya siket ga guiwa wai fitatta.
When
they rub pomade on their head it shines
They
put a short skirt to demonstrate superiority.
(Haliru
Wurno: Waƙar Muhimmancin Al’adunnmu da Haɗarin Rungumar na
Waje)
Many poets composed a
number of poems in educating people to resist whatever the europens brought in
stating that it is against the teachings of the religion of Islam.
2.3 Resistance to European Second Hand Cloths
Used clothes are new
in Hausaland there availability has to do with the development in the western
world, when they started sending used items including clothes to their colonies
whom were regarded as ready made markets for Metropolitan products . Used
clothes are what is termed as “Osho,
Gwanjo, Bura-bura, and Akirka” the
exact name depends on the dialect. But which ever dialect of the Hausa language
is used it is reffering to second-hand clothes imported from European Countries
Bunza (2002).
Second- hand European
clothes are aspects of European culture that is not in consonance with Hausa
Muslim culture. The clothes are usually tight and expose the body of the user
something prohibited by Islam. It was condenmed by some Hausa poet who were
mostly Muslim Ulamas. It was based on that a poet Maharazu said:
Waƙar ga duk zancen ta
na bisa dabtare,
Daraja wala lallai ga mai sa osho.
The
explanation in this poem is very clean,
Anybody
wearing 2nd hand clothes lack personality.
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
Poet Maharazu took
great pains to refer to religious authorities to buttress his position and to
silence those doubting his stance. He pointed out that:
Kowa ka tambaba shi lura da Lawwali,
Shi ga inda Allah yak ki mai sa osho
Anybody
doubting should refer to the book of Lawwali
To see
the why wearing Osho is prohibited by Allah
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
The coming of Second
-hand clothes to the Hausa people is what makes them to know button that is been
put and used in clothes. The poet took this aspect of 2nd hand
clothes for condemnation. It was on this that he opined:
Wando da ƙarfe ya yi goma
iri-iri,
Da ganin tufan wuta babu shakka osho
Trouser
embrioded with different metals
A
glimpse at the cloth could reveal sign of hell fire.
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
In
light of the above, the poet advises people to avoid European second-hand
clothes being paraded in the markets as a sign of modernity. Likewise, in the
following stanza, the poet emphasizes that even Sheik Usmanu Danfodiyo, the
19th-century Islamic reformer and founder of the Sokoto Caliphate, detested
such clothing (Osho). He said:
Duba ga Shaikhu Mujaddadi bin Fodiye,
Ku dubi taƙiyyi ba shi son mai
osho.
Refer
to Sheikh Usmanu Danfodiyo,
A God-fearing
scholar that reject dealing with Osho- 2nd hand clothes
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
The Poet went further
to conclude that, any Muslim who wears osho has became an infidel. The below
stanzas shed more light to that effect as:
Kwas sa tufafin kafiri ya zan wa shi,
Ji wannan tashabbaha kak ka yarda da osho.
16. He
who wear an infidel dress resembles him,
Move
away from this copying do not agree with 2nd hand clothes.
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
The poet stance is
guided by a saying ascribed to the Prophet of Islam prohibiting copying the
ways of the infidels. The poet advanced further by showing that Osho materials
can not be used to perform any Islamic religious right, because the owners of
those materials are not Muslims. The poet pointed out some stanzas to this
effect where he said:
Kowa ka yin sallah da osho mun jiya,
To sai shi maishe ta, ai shi furfura osho.
Anybody
who pray with Second hand clothes,
should
remove them and repeat his prayer.
Kuma manya-manya kafurai su ad da shi,
Wari da ƙazni duk akwai su ga
osho
Prominent
infidels are the owners of Osho,
Bad
odour and smell characterizes Osho,
(Muhammadu
Huci: Waƙar Osho)
3.0 Coclussion
The pen is mightier
than the gun and more effective in winning the hearts of the populace,
persuading them to reject and counter European cultural infiltration in
society. Poems are powerful tools for educating the public on any program that
needs propagation. The ulamas, who were also poets, made significant efforts to
enlighten the populace on all aspects of human endeavors, including resistance
to European conquerors. These poets composed numerous poems resisting the
arrival of British colonialists and various aspects of their culture. The
colonialists introduced many things, such as their style of education, mode of
dressing, eating habits, and more. In protest against the domination of
European cultural practices and ideas, the poets composed resistance poems
addressing Western education, Western clothing culture, and the influx of
second-hand clothes from Europe. These poems, among others, fostered a deep
mistrust of anything European within the indigenous community and played a
crucial role in preserving aspects of indigenous culture from being entirely
wiped out or replaced by European ones.
References
Al-Maududi,
A. A. (1963). A Short History of the
Revivalist Movement in Islam. Lahore:
Islamic
Publication.
Ahmad,
A. A. (1963).’’ Nazarin Zambo-Zagi a Adabin Hausa: Tsokaci kan Siyasar Arewacin
Nijeriya (1950-1960)’’ Kundin Kammala Karatun Digiri na Biyu. Sashen Nazarin
Harsunan Nijeriya, U.D.U Sokoto.
Anwar
Auwalu (2007), Gadar Zare, Zaria, ABU Press.
Bergery,
G. P. (1934). Hausa-English and
English-Hausa Vocabulary. London: Oxford University Press.
Bunza,
A. M. (2002).’’ Gwagwarmayar Malaman Sakkwato da Dasisar Nasara. Yunƙurin bi-ta- da-ƙullin Akirka Cikin Waƙar Osho ta Malam
Muhammadu Huci, Tahamisin Malam Mahrazu Barmu Kwasare cikn Juyayin Masana’: Muƙalun Binciken Adabi
da Harshe da Al’adun Hausawa don Juyayin Malam Habibu Alhassan (1935-1995). Huhkumar Fassara,
Ofishin Fas, W sara Jakadiyar UNESCO.
Crowder
M. (Edt.1971). West African Resistance:
The military responmse to occupation. London, Hutchinson University Library
for Africa,
Dangambo,
A. (1984). Rabe-Raben Asabin Hausa da
Muhimmancinsa ga Rayuwar Hausawa. Kano: Triumph Publishing Company. Gidan
Sa’adu Zungur.
Hiskett,
M. (1975) A History of Hausa Islamic
Verse. School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. Malet
Steet London WCIE 7HP.
Imam,
A. H. (2002). ‘’Waƙoƙin Bijirewa na Tajadidi’’. Kundin Neman Digiri na Farko,
Sashen Harsunan Nijeriya da Afirka. A. B. U. Zariya.
Jami’ar Bayero
Kano (2007), Kamusun Hausa Cibiyar
Nazarin Harsunnan Nijeriya, B.U.K.
Junaidu,
S. W. (1990).’ Resistance to Western Cultures in the Sakkwato Caliphate: A
lesson to Generation Yet Unborn’. State
and Society in the Sokoto Caliphate eds by Kani, M. et al. Zaria: Gaskiya
Coporation Limited.
Mani,
A. (1956). Zuwan Turawa Nijeriya ta Arewa.
Zaria: Northern Nigeria Publishing Company.
Mohammed,
A. S. (2003).’ A Review of the Conquest and Resistance of the Emirates of
Northern Nigeria’. Text of Paper Presented at an International Conference on
the Transformation of
Okoth,
A. (1979). History of Africa
1855-1914.
Sa’id,
B. (1995). ‘The Reaction of Hausa Poets to Western Civilisation’. Harsunan Nijeriya vol xvii, Center for
the Study of Nigerian Languges. B.U.K.
Skinner,
N. (1965). Ƙamus Na
Hausa Da Turanci.
Zaria: Northern Nigeria Publishing Company.
Talton,
B. (2006). African Resistance to Colonial
Rule. Schomburg-Mellon Humanities Institute. Schomburg Center for Reserch
in Black Culture.
Tsiga,
I. A. (2014). ‘One Hundred Years of Karatun Boko: Education, Language and Value
Change in Hausa Land’. Address Delivered at the Presentation of the Book, Ruwan Bagaja in Perspectives: Eight
Decades of a Hausa Masterpiece in Prose (1933-2013). Umaru Musa ‘Yar’adua
University, Katsina.
Usman
M.T (2013). Muslim Scholars of Sokoto
Emirate under British Rule, 1903-1960: A History of Reaction and Compromise in
Northern Nigeria, Zaria, ABU Press.
0 Comments
ENGLISH: You are warmly invited to share your comments or ask questions regarding this post or related topics of interest. Your feedback serves as evidence of your appreciation for our hard work and ongoing efforts to sustain this extensive and informative blog. We value your input and engagement.
HAUSA: Kuna iya rubuto mana tsokaci ko tambayoyi a ƙasa. Tsokacinku game da abubuwan da muke ɗorawa shi zai tabbatar mana cewa mutane suna amfana da wannan ƙoƙari da muke yi na tattaro muku ɗimbin ilimummuka a wannan kafar intanet.